Employee Reliability & Polygraph Testing: EPPA Guide

Defining the Gold Standard of Workplace Dependability

Employee reliability refers to the consistent ability of a worker to fulfill their responsibilities dependably, honestly, and with professional integrity. A reliable employee goes beyond completing minimum tasks — they add measurable value to the organization, demonstrate initiative, and can be trusted to perform without constant oversight.

Reliability encompasses several interconnected qualities: punctuality, consistency, accountability, initiative, adaptability, and ethical conduct. When hiring managers talk about finding reliable people, they mean candidates who embody all of these traits simultaneously and sustain them over time.

The distinction between a reliable employee and a mere worker matters. An employee invests in the organization's mission and treats their role as a meaningful component of a larger enterprise. A worker may perform basic functions required to earn a paycheck without deeper commitment to organizational success. This distinction is fundamental to understanding why employers invest substantial resources in screening and verification.

Key Characteristics of Reliable Employees

Reliable employees distinguish themselves through consistent behavioral patterns that organizations can depend on:

Punctuality and presence — They arrive on time, attend meetings, and are available when needed. Their physical and mental presence creates a foundation of dependability.

Consistent high performance — They meet or exceed deadlines regularly. Their output is a steady stream of quality work that the team can plan around.

Initiative and self-direction — They identify opportunities for improvement and act without waiting for explicit instructions.

Willingness to accept responsibility — They take ownership of outcomes, including failures, and take corrective action rather than deflecting blame.

Ethical conduct and honesty — They operate with integrity in all professional interactions, maintaining transparency about work progress and ethical business practices.

Adaptability under pressure — They maintain performance standards during challenging periods. Organizational change, tight deadlines, and unexpected problems do not derail their effectiveness.

These characteristics create a multiplier effect within teams. One truly reliable employee can elevate the performance of those around them, setting standards that strengthen the entire organization.

Why Work Ethic Is Central to Reliability

Work ethic is the engine that drives employee reliability. Without strong internal motivation to do excellent work, even the most skilled candidate will eventually underperform. This is particularly critical in modern work environments where remote and hybrid arrangements have become commonplace.

Consider a remote position: the employer cannot physically observe the employee working throughout the day. While benchmarks and milestones can be established, they only measure outputs at specific intervals. A strong work ethic ensures the employee is genuinely investing effort and attention into their work consistently.

It takes time for an employee to prove their reliability, and this is precisely why organizations need effective pre-employment screening tools to identify candidates most likely to demonstrate these qualities from the outset.

The Organizational Impact of Employee Reliability

Reliable employees are the infrastructure upon which business success is built. They define the function and mission of any business, directly influencing how clients perceive your company. If your organization prioritizes customer service excellence, reliable employees execute that value in every interaction.

Reliable employees directly impact the bottom line. Their skill, dedication, and engagement with customers generate revenue. The difference between a sales professional who barely meets targets and one who doubles their budget comes down to reliability, initiative, and internal drive. That differential compounds over quarters and years.

While management designs customer journey frameworks, frontline employees execute those experiences in real time. A reliable employee adapts the framework to each customer's needs while maintaining consistency with company values. Unreliable employees follow scripts mechanically or abandon them entirely, creating inconsistent and negative customer experiences.

Employee reliability also has a cascading effect on organizational culture. When team members can depend on each other, collaboration improves, morale rises, and the overall employee experience strengthens. This creates a workplace that attracts more high-quality talent, further reinforcing the cycle of reliability and performance.

The Cost of Unreliable Employees: Workplace Theft and Fraud

The absence of reliable employees is often at the root of workplace theft and fraud, which represents a staggering financial problem for American businesses. Employee theft costs U.S. businesses an estimated $50 billion annually Verified How Accurate Is a Polygraph Test?
Confirms NAS 2003 analysis found overall accuracy of 85% and median accuracy of 89% in specific-incident field studies.

Early foundational research by Gordon H. Barland and David C. Raskin established baseline validity data for the Comparison Question Technique (CQT) with criminal suspects, producing empirical evidence that would be referenced in every subsequent government review [14]Verified Validity and Reliability of Polygraph Examinations of Criminal Suspects
One of the earliest rigorous field studies of the CQT establishing baseline accuracy data referenced in every subsequent government review. Similarly, the seminal reliability study by Frank S. Horvath and John E. Reid in 1971 found high inter-rater reliability for experienced examiners using structured scoring methods [15]Verified The Reliability of Polygraph Examiner Diagnosis of Truth and Deception
Seminal reliability study finding high inter-rater reliability for experienced examiners using structured scoring methods.

For security screening applications specifically, research by Gordon H. Barland et al. (1989) at DoDPI found that screening polygraphs showed 94.9% accuracy for innocent examinees, demonstrating strong protection against false accusations for truthful individuals [16]Verified Studies of the Accuracy of Security Screening Polygraph Examinations
Security screening polygraphs showed 94.9% accuracy for innocent examinees in DoDPI research. In a survey of U.S. law enforcement agencies, over 90% expressed moderate or high confidence in their polygraph screening programs, and 80% reported accuracy ranging between 86% and 100% [17]Verified Polygraph Frequently Asked Questions
Confirms over 90% of law enforcement agencies expressed moderate or high confidence in polygraph screening and voice stress analyzers shown no better than chance.

The Deterrent Effect of Polygraph Policies

One of the most underappreciated benefits of workplace polygraph policies is their deterrent effect. The 2003 National Research Council report acknowledged that polygraph screening may be useful for achieving objectives such as deterring security violations, increasing the frequency of admissions of such violations, and deterring employment applications from potentially poor security risks [12]Verified The Polygraph and Lie Detection
Confirms 2003 NRC report finding polygraph has utility for deterrence and greater than chance accuracy for specific-incident testing.

During the onboarding process, when a company clearly communicates that polygraph testing may be implemented in cases of theft, fraud, or serious misconduct, unreliable candidates often self-select out of the hiring process. They recognize that the organization takes integrity seriously and decide the risk of eventual detection is not worth pursuing.

Reliable candidates, by contrast, view such policies favorably. They see them as evidence that they will be working alongside trustworthy colleagues in an organization that values honesty. This dynamic naturally improves the quality of the applicant pool and contributes to a stronger organizational culture.

However, using polygraph testing as a routine intimidation tool for performance reviews is counterproductive. If employees feel the polygraph is a regular threat rather than a measured investigative tool, it creates a hostile work environment that drives away good employees alongside bad ones. The polygraph works best as part of a transparent, lawful integrity program.

Understanding Federal Polygraph Law in the Workplace

The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (EPPA) is the primary federal law governing polygraph tests in employment settings. Signed into law by President Ronald Reagan on June 27, 1988, EPPA became Public Law 100-347 [1]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (29 U.S.C. Chapter 22)
Confirms the full text of EPPA including prohibitions, exemptions, employee rights, and civil penalty provisions. The legislation originated as H.R. 1212, introduced by Representative Pat Williams of Montana, with a corresponding Senate bill (S.1904) introduced by Senator Edward M. Kennedy [18]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act: What It Means for Employees and Employers
Confirms EPPA was introduced by Rep. Pat Williams and Sen. Edward Kennedy, signed by President Reagan on June 27, 1988. The measure passed the Senate by a vote of 69-27 [19]Verified S.1904 - Polygraph Protection Act of 1987 (100th Congress)
Confirms S.1904 was the Senate bill number for the Polygraph Protection Act in the 100th Congress.

EPPA was enacted because Congress determined that polygraph testing in the workplace required federal regulation to protect employee rights [20]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988: Background and Implications
Confirms EPPA eliminated approximately 85% of polygraph tests given in the private sector and included a $10,000 penalty provision. The law does not declare polygraphs to be inherently unreliable or scientifically invalid. Rather, it establishes a framework to prevent abuse of polygraph testing while preserving its use in contexts where it serves legitimate security and investigative purposes.

The Act's key provisions include:

General prohibition — Most private employers cannot require, request, suggest, or cause any employee or job applicant to take a lie detector test [1]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (29 U.S.C. Chapter 22)
Confirms the full text of EPPA including prohibitions, exemptions, employee rights, and civil penalty provisions.

No adverse action based on refusal — Employers cannot discipline, fire, discriminate against, or deny employment to anyone who refuses a polygraph test [1]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (29 U.S.C. Chapter 22)
Confirms the full text of EPPA including prohibitions, exemptions, employee rights, and civil penalty provisions.

No adverse action based solely on results — Even where testing is permitted, employers cannot take adverse employment action based solely on polygraph test results without additional supporting evidence [1]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (29 U.S.C. Chapter 22)
Confirms the full text of EPPA including prohibitions, exemptions, employee rights, and civil penalty provisions.

Disclosure restrictions — Information obtained during a polygraph test generally cannot be disclosed except to the examinee, designated parties, or pursuant to court order [1]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (29 U.S.C. Chapter 22)
Confirms the full text of EPPA including prohibitions, exemptions, employee rights, and civil penalty provisions.

Posting requirement — Every employer subject to EPPA must post a notice explaining the Act in a prominent workplace location [1]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (29 U.S.C. Chapter 22)
Confirms the full text of EPPA including prohibitions, exemptions, employee rights, and civil penalty provisions.

For a deeper exploration of the legislative history, see our guide on the Employee Polygraph Protection Act: The 1988 Law Explained.

EPPA Civil Penalties and Enforcement

Violations of EPPA carry significant financial consequences. The original statute set a maximum civil penalty of $10,000 per violation [21]Verified Federal EPPA Lists Rules for Lie Detector Tests
Confirms $10,000 maximum civil penalty for EPPA violations and employees' private right of action. Under the Federal Civil Penalties Inflation Adjustment Act Improvements Act of 2015, the Department of Labor is required to adjust EPPA penalties annually for inflation [22]Verified Department of Labor Federal Civil Penalties Inflation Adjustment Act Catch-Up Adjustments
Confirms EPPA penalty adjusted from $10,000 to $19,787 per violation based on 1988 inflation factor of 1.97869. As of 2016, the penalty was adjusted to $19,787 per violation [22]Verified Department of Labor Federal Civil Penalties Inflation Adjustment Act Catch-Up Adjustments
Confirms EPPA penalty adjusted from $10,000 to $19,787 per violation based on 1988 inflation factor of 1.97869, and it has been adjusted further in subsequent years.

The Secretary of Labor is authorized to bring injunctive actions in U.S. district courts to restrain violations and to assess civil money penalties against employers who violate the Act [21]Verified Federal EPPA Lists Rules for Lie Detector Tests
Confirms $10,000 maximum civil penalty for EPPA violations and employees' private right of action. Individual employees may also file private civil lawsuits to enforce the law, seeking relief including reinstatement, promotion, and payment of back pay and benefits [21]Verified Federal EPPA Lists Rules for Lie Detector Tests
Confirms $10,000 maximum civil penalty for EPPA violations and employees' private right of action. There is a 3-year statute of limitations for filing civil actions [23]Verified EPPA Rights Explained: A Step-by-Step Guide for U.S. Workers
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement and 3-year statute of limitations for civil EPPA actions.

The Wage and Hour Division of the U.S. Department of Labor administers and enforces EPPA [1]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (29 U.S.C. Chapter 22)
Confirms the full text of EPPA including prohibitions, exemptions, employee rights, and civil penalty provisions. Given the significant potential liability, employers should always consult with legal counsel before implementing any polygraph testing program.

Government Exemptions

EPPA does not apply to federal, state, and local government agencies [1]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (29 U.S.C. Chapter 22)
Confirms the full text of EPPA including prohibitions, exemptions, employee rights, and civil penalty provisions. This means government entities — including police departments, correctional institutions, school systems, and all federal agencies — can freely use polygraph testing for both pre-employment screening and ongoing employment purposes.

Federal agencies that regularly use polygraph testing include the FBI, CIA, NSA, DEA, Secret Service, and Department of Energy. Many state and local law enforcement agencies require polygraph examinations as part of the hiring process for police officers and other sworn personnel. For specifics on federal agency polygraph programs, see our DEA Polygraph Exam preparation guide.

Private Sector Exemptions

EPPA provides limited exemptions for specific private sector industries [1]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (29 U.S.C. Chapter 22)
Confirms the full text of EPPA including prohibitions, exemptions, employee rights, and civil penalty provisions:

Security service firms — Companies whose primary business purpose is providing armored car personnel, personnel engaged in the design, installation, and maintenance of security alarm systems, or other uniformed or plainclothes security personnel may administer polygraph tests to prospective and current employees [3]Verified EPPA (Employee Polygraph Protection Act): The Fine Print
Confirms three groups of exempt employees and specific conditions for ongoing investigation testing. This includes firms protecting facilities with significant impact on health or safety, such as nuclear or electric power plants, public water works, and toxic waste disposal facilities. Learn more about why security firms use polygraph tests.

Pharmaceutical companies — Employers authorized to manufacture, distribute, or dispense controlled substances listed under federal law may use polygraph testing [3]Verified EPPA (Employee Polygraph Protection Act): The Fine Print
Confirms three groups of exempt employees and specific conditions for ongoing investigation testing. This exemption recognizes the heightened security requirements in industries handling controlled substances. See our guide on polygraph testing for drug use in the workplace.

Federal contractors — Businesses under contract with the federal government involving specified activities such as counterintelligence work are exempt [3]Verified EPPA (Employee Polygraph Protection Act): The Fine Print
Confirms three groups of exempt employees and specific conditions for ongoing investigation testing.

Even within exempt industries, EPPA's procedural requirements and employee rights provisions still apply. Employers must follow strict testing protocols and cannot use polygraph results as the sole basis for adverse employment decisions [5]Verified 29 CFR Part 801 - Application of the Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988
Confirms EPPA regulations including definitions, employer obligations, exemptions, and enforcement provisions.

The Ongoing Investigation Exemption

One of EPPA's most practically important provisions is the ongoing investigation exemption. Private employers — even those not in exempt industries — may request that certain employees submit to a polygraph test if the test is administered in connection with an ongoing investigation involving economic loss or injury to the employer's business [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty. This includes theft, embezzlement, misappropriation, or acts of unlawful industrial espionage or sabotage.

To use this exemption, the employer must meet several strict conditions:

1. There must be an ongoing investigation involving a specific incident of economic loss or injury. 2. The employee being tested must have had access to the property or person that is the subject of the investigation. 3. The employer must have a reasonable suspicion that the specific employee was involved in the incident. Access alone is not sufficient grounds for testing [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty. 4. The employer must provide a written statement identifying the specific incident under investigation, the basis for testing that particular employee, and proof of the employee's access. 5. The statement must be signed by someone authorized to legally bind the employer (not the polygraph examiner) and must be retained for at least 3 years [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty.

For practical guidance on workplace theft investigations, see our guide to polygraph testing for insurance fraud and workers' compensation fraud investigations.

Employee Rights During Workplace Investigations

Even when polygraph testing is lawfully permitted, EPPA provides robust protections for employees:

48-hour advance notice — Employees must receive at least 48 hours' written notice (not counting weekends or holidays) of the date, time, and place of the examination [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty.

Right to legal counsel — Employees have the right to consult with legal counsel or an employee representative before each phase of the test [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty.

Voluntary participation — Employees can refuse to take the test at any time, and cannot be terminated or disciplined for refusing [5]Verified 29 CFR Part 801 - Application of the Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988
Confirms EPPA regulations including definitions, employer obligations, exemptions, and enforcement provisions.

Right to terminate — Employees may stop the examination at any point during the process.

Restrictions on questions — Certain question areas are prohibited, including questions about religious beliefs, political opinions, racial matters, labor organization activities, and sexual behavior.

Results disclosure — Test results can only be disclosed to the examinee, the employer (in limited circumstances), or pursuant to court order [5]Verified 29 CFR Part 801 - Application of the Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988
Confirms EPPA regulations including definitions, employer obligations, exemptions, and enforcement provisions.

Additional supporting evidence required — Even where the employee tests as deceptive, the employer cannot take adverse action based solely on the polygraph results. Additional supporting evidence is always required [5]Verified 29 CFR Part 801 - Application of the Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988
Confirms EPPA regulations including definitions, employer obligations, exemptions, and enforcement provisions.

Understanding these rights protects both employers and employees. For more on whether an employer can observe the testing process, see can an employer watch a lie detector test through a two-way mirror?

From Investigation to Examination

A well-executed workplace polygraph examination follows a structured process designed to maximize accuracy and legal compliance:

Step 1: Establish the investigation basis — Document the specific economic loss or injury, identify employees with access, and develop reasonable suspicion for each individual to be tested.

Step 2: Prepare the written statement — Create a detailed statement identifying the company, the specific incident under investigation, the nature and location of the loss, and the basis for suspecting the employee's involvement.

Step 3: Obtain authorized signature — The written statement must be signed by someone authorized to legally bind the employer, not the polygraph examiner.

Step 4: Deliver 48-hour notice — Provide the employee with the written statement and all required notices at least 48 hours before the scheduled examination, not counting weekends or holidays [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty.

Step 5: Read the Notice to Examinee — Present the employee with their rights under EPPA, which should be signed, timed, dated, and witnessed [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty.

Step 6: Conduct the examination — A qualified, licensed polygraph examiner administers the test, which under EPPA must be at least 90 minutes in duration [24]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) Compliance Checklist
Confirms 90-minute minimum test duration, 5-test daily limit, and 48-hour advance notice requirements. No examiner may conduct more than 5 polygraph tests in a single calendar day [24]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) Compliance Checklist
Confirms 90-minute minimum test duration, 5-test daily limit, and 48-hour advance notice requirements.

Step 7: Communicate results — The examiner must inform the employee of the results and allow them an opportunity to explain any reactions. Any opinion of deception or non-deception must be provided in writing [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty.

Step 8: Retain records — Both the employer and the examiner must retain all reports, notes, and records for a minimum of 3 years [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty.

Building a Compliant Workplace Integrity Program

Implementing a polygraph policy requires careful planning and legal guidance. Organizations should consider the following framework:

Determine applicability — Identify whether your organization qualifies for any EPPA exemptions (government, security services, pharmaceutical, federal contractors, or ongoing investigations).

Develop written policies — Create clear policies that outline when polygraph testing may be used, the procedures that will be followed, and the rights of employees throughout the process. Include these policies in employee handbooks and onboarding materials.

Communicate transparently — During the onboarding process, ensure new employees understand the organization's stance on integrity and the circumstances under which polygraph testing may occur. Transparent communication enhances the deterrent effect while maintaining a positive workplace culture.

Engage legal counsel — Have your corporate attorney review all polygraph-related policies and procedures to ensure full EPPA compliance. State laws may impose additional restrictions beyond federal requirements.

Select qualified examiners — Use only independent, licensed polygraph professionals who meet EPPA requirements. Never use internal staff to conduct examinations. Verify the examiner's licensing, liability insurance, and compliance credentials [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty.

Integrate with broader screening — Polygraph testing should be one component of a comprehensive screening program that may include background checks, reference verification, drug testing, and performance evaluations.

For organizations looking at international models of corporate polygraph use, explore how polygraph testing is applied in anti-corruption programs across Africa or in Ghana's corporate sector.

What to Look for in a Professional Examiner

The quality of a polygraph examination depends heavily on the examiner's qualifications. Under EPPA, polygraph examiners must meet specific requirements before conducting workplace examinations [4]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) - American Polygraph Association Compliance Guide
Confirms 48-hour notice requirement, employer checklist, examiner requirements, and $10,000 per violation penalty. Key qualifications to verify include:

State licensing — Many states require polygraph examiners to hold a valid license. Verify that the examiner is currently licensed in the state where the test will be conducted.

Accredited training — The examiner should have graduated from an APA-accredited polygraph training program and maintain continuing education requirements.

Professional membership — Membership in the American Polygraph Association or state polygraph association indicates adherence to professional standards and a code of ethics.

Liability insurance — Require written proof of professional liability insurance before engaging an examiner.

EPPA compliance experience — The examiner should be thoroughly familiar with EPPA requirements and able to guide both the employer and employee through the process.

Research has shown that examiner competence significantly affects accuracy outcomes. The seminal 1971 study by Horvath and Reid demonstrated that experienced examiners using structured scoring methods achieve high inter-rater reliability [15]Verified The Reliability of Polygraph Examiner Diagnosis of Truth and Deception
Seminal reliability study finding high inter-rater reliability for experienced examiners using structured scoring methods. Additionally, research by Krapohl and Goodson (2015) showed that algorithmic support can help address interrater reliability issues in certain testing formats [25]Verified Decision Accuracy for the Relevant-Irrelevant Screening Test: Influence of an Algorithm on Human Decision-Making
Investigated whether algorithmic support could resolve interrater reliability issues in RI screening tests. These findings underscore the importance of hiring examiners who use validated techniques and objective scoring methods.

Alternative and complementary screening technologies have also emerged. Voice stress detection (CVSA) is sometimes marketed as an alternative, though the APA notes that voice stress instruments have not been shown to work better than chance [17]Verified Polygraph Frequently Asked Questions
Confirms over 90% of law enforcement agencies expressed moderate or high confidence in polygraph screening and voice stress analyzers shown no better than chance. EyeDetect is a newer technology that uses eye-tracking to detect deception, and has seen growing adoption in African law enforcement and emerging markets.

International Workplace Polygraph Applications

Workplace polygraph testing is not limited to the United States. A 2007 analysis of the EPPA by Leonard Saxe examined the law's two-decade impact, noting how the 1988 legislation banned most private employer polygraph use while maintaining exceptions for government, security, and pharmaceutical industries [26]Verified Employee Polygraph Protection Act: 20 Years Later
Analyses of the 1988 EPPA's impact after two decades, confirmed maintained exceptions for government, security, and pharmaceutical industries. This regulatory model has influenced how other countries approach workplace polygraph policy.

In Poland, research by Widacki and Cempura (2011) found that employee polygraph examinations in the private sector face significant legal obstacles absent explicit statutory authorization, while government agencies have clearer authority for polygraph screening [27]Verified Legal Admissibility of Employee Polygraph Examinations in Poland
Employee polygraph examinations in Poland's private sector face significant legal obstacles absent statutory authorization. This mirrors the U.S. model of differential treatment between public and private sectors.

Polygraph testing has seen expanding use in Korea's corporate and military sectors, and across Africa in anti-corruption programs, Ghana's corporate environment, and Zimbabwe's corporate and law enforcement settings. Educational institutions are also beginning to consider polygraph testing — learn more in our guide to polygraph testing for educational institutions.