Scoring Methods

[001] Ginton, A. (2025)

Possible Sources of the Difference in the Severity of the Prior Information Effect on Polygraph Scoring Found in Three Published Studies

Psychological Reports Prior information effects on polygraph scoring vary significantly across studies, with real-world impact estimated to adversely affect only 3-5% of polygraph examinations in practice. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [002] Tuvya T. Amsel (2025)

'Believe your chart but don't ignore your nose'

European Polygraph The study concludes that examiners should engage their intuition as accumulated subconscious information gained through experience to supplement numerical scoring, as test complexity and inherent… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [003] Yusuke Shibuya, Michiko Tsuneoka, Reo Takahashi, Tokihiro Ogawa (2024)

Improvement of discrimination method utilizing effect sizes to identify differential physiological responses in the Concealed Information Test

Japanese Journal of Forensic Science and Technology The weighted effect size method incorporating consistency-based weighting and covariate adjustment outperformed traditional unweighted approaches, providing more accurate and interpretable discrimination between examinees with and… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [004] Dana Rad, Nicolae Paraschiv, Csaba Kiss, Valentina Emilia Balas, Cornel Barna (2024)

Physiological Reactions Profiling in Polygraph Testing: Insights from Fuzzy C-Means Clustering Analysis

Acta Polytechnica Hungarica Fuzzy clustering identified distinct physiological profiles across 18 parameters with a moderate R² of 0.371 and a low silhouette coefficient of 0.010, indicating that physiological… AI & Machine Learning in Deception Detection [005] Reo Takahashi, Yusuke Shibuya, Michiko Tsuneoka, Tokihiro Ogawa (2024)

Area measure of skin conductance in the Concealed Information Test

International Journal of Psychophysiology SC area showed acceptable performance for CIT classification and exceeded chance-level discrimination even for low-responsive participants, though equivalence with traditional amplitude measurement remained inconclusive. Optimal… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [006] Donald J. Krapohl; Donnie W. Dutton (2024 • COMPUTER SCORING FIELD)

Comparison of OSS-3 and PolyScore in Multi-Issue and Single-Issue Field Exams

Polygraph Compared computerized scoring algorithms on field data. OSS-3 correctly identified 71% truthful and 96% deceptive with 14% inconclusive rate, outperforming PolyScore on multiple-issue tests. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [007] YUSUKE SHIBUYA, MICHIKO TSUNEOKA, REO TAKAHASHI, TOKIHIRO OGAWA (2023)

Hierarchical Bayesian Modeling of Autonomic Responses during the Concealed Information Test

Japanese Journal of Physiological Psychology and Psychophysiology The hierarchical Bayesian state-space model successfully analyzes CIT physiological time-series data in natural measurement units without standardization, revealing typical response magnitudes and individual differences previously… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [008] Tuvya T. Amsel (2023)

The Numerical Scoring Analysis Predecessors

European Polygraph Numerical scoring analysis was more evolutionary than revolutionary, with Backster likely adapting Richard Arther's check-mark system by replacing check-marks with numerical figures to create the… Foundational & Historical Research [009] Mika Nakano, Go Sudo, Risa Maeda, Kazuki Hyodo, Shinsuke Gamo (2023)

Applicability for auricle normalized pulse volume in the concealed information test Analysis of within-series physiological variations

The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association The study explored auricle-based normalized pulse volume as an alternative measurement site for CIT testing, analyzing physiological response patterns and variations across repeated item presentations… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [010] Yusuke Shibuya, Tokihiro Ogawa, Michiko Tsuneoka, Reo Takahashi (2022)

Hierarchical Bayesian modeling for time series physiological data during the autonomic-based concealed information test.

The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association Hierarchical Bayesian models applied to 167 participants' CIT data provided more accurate effect size estimates than conventional methods, confirmed CIT validity, and revealed heart rate… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [011] Marcin Gołaszewski (2022)

Should Blind Evaluation of Polygraph Charts Be a Mandatory Procedure in Evidentiary Examinations?

European Polygraph Empirical research demonstrates that prior information about examinees influences polygraph chart interpretation through confirmation bias. The paper advocates for mandatory blind evaluation procedures in evidentiary… Legal & Policy Studies [012] Avital Ginton (2022)

Thoughts on the Inconclusive Zone in Comparison Question Test (CQT)

European Polygraph Inconclusive results indicate CQT method failure to identify the subject's state of mind rather than reflecting actual truthfulness, requiring fundamental reframing of how examiners interpret… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [013] Reo Takahashi, Yusuke Shibuya, Tokihiro Ogawa, Michiko Tsuneoka (2022)

An amplitude-independent component of an integral measure in the concealed information test

The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association Skin conductance area obtained by summing the delta signal for 10 seconds after question onset showed the best classification performance and may enable analysis of… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [014] Donnie W. Dutton (2021)

Response Onset Windows for Electrodermal, Cardiovascular and Vasomotor Responses: A Preliminary Study Using the British One-issue Screening Test

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment Conventional response onset windows (0.5-4.0s electrodermal, 1.0-9.0s cardiovascular, 2.0-9.0s vasomotor) were empirically validated, with electrodermal responses showing significant skew clustering in the 1-3 second range. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [015] Nelson, R., Handler, M., Raskin, D.C. (2021)

Literature Review and Analysis of the Multi-facet Hypothesis and the Evaluation of Independent Target Questions

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment Grand total scoring achieved 89% accuracy compared to 78% for multi-facet hypothesis scoring—an 11 percentage point difference that challenges the operational utility of assuming independence… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [016] Tokihiro Ogawa, Mariko Hosoe, Natsu Nomura, Michiko Tsuneoka (2021)

Quantification methods for within-series physiological variations in the concealed information test

Japanese Journal of Forensic Science and Technology First-order difference measures of physiological transitions successfully distinguished between knowledgeable and unknowledgeable examinees, demonstrating that sequential response patterns contain diagnostic information beyond traditional amplitude-based scoring. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [017] Donnie W. Dutton (2020)

Best Practices in Polygraph Examination

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment Monte Carlo simulations based on 299 subtotal scores provided the first systematic criterion accuracy estimates and confidence intervals for two-relevant-question multi-issue examinations, confirming that each… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [018] Hajung Jeon, 엄진섭, Jin-Hun Sohn (2020)

The Accuracy of Permutation Test in P300-based Concealed Information Test

Korean Journal of Cognitive and Biological Psychology Permutation tests maintained nominal Type I error rates while bootstrap methods exceeded significance levels; optimal statistical power achieved with 5 Hz filtering and mean amplitude… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [019] Krapohl, D.J. (2020)

Electrodermal Responses: When is Bigger Really Better?

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment: A Journal of Science and Field Practice Performance peaked when electrodermal response amplitudes differed by 10-20%, with a subsequent laboratory analysis finding optimal correlation at 30% minimum difference when scoring against the… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [020] Jin-sup Eom, Jin-Hun Sohn, Mi-Sook Park (2020)

Is the t-test insensitive than the bootstrap method in the P300-based concealed information test?

THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY The t-test and percentile bootstrap method showed similar Type I error rates, with the bootstrap method demonstrating only slightly higher statistical power than the t-test,… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [021] Donald J. Krapohl (2020)

Electrodermal Response Ratios: Scoring Against the Stronger of Two Comparison Questions in Search of an Optimal Minimum Threshold

European Polygraph The optimal minimum difference for scoring electrodermal responses against the stronger of two comparison questions was 30%, with a point-biserial correlation of 0.680 between scores… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [022] Donnie W. Dutton (2019)

Literature Survey of Structural Weighting of Polygraph Signals

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment EDA contributes over 60% of diagnostic information in polygraph testing, with cardiovascular responses accounting for approximately 34% and respiration contributing the remainder. Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [023] Benjamin L. Blalock (2019)

Practical Polygraph: How to Parse Categorical Results for Test Questions of Diagnostic and Screening Polygraphs

APA Magazine For diagnostic examinations, the Grand Total Rule should be used when all relevant questions address the same issue, while for screening examinations, the Subtotal Score… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [024] Benjamin L. Blalock (2019)

How To: A Step-by-Step Worksheet for the Multinomial ESS

Poligrafia The paper provides comprehensive implementation tools including a structured ESS-M Analysis Worksheet, multinomial reference tables for various test formats (3-5 iterations of 2-4 relevant questions),… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [025] Naohiro Yamamoto (2019)

Examining probability distribution of within a set judgment method for Concealed Information Test

The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association The study analyzed probability distributions of within-set judgment methods to establish statistical foundations for CIT decision-making and threshold setting in field applications. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [026] Yusuke Shibuya (2019)

The intra-individual consistency of the differential physiological responses on the Concealed Information Test: hierarchical Bayesian approach.

The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association Hierarchical Bayesian estimates of effect sizes were more accurate than conventional approaches, revealing that traditional Z-score methods overestimate the magnitude of differential responding. Heart rate… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [027] Kleinberg, B., Arntz, A., Verschuere, B. (2019)

Being accurate about accuracy in verbal deception detection

PLoS ONE Training set optimization dramatically overestimates accuracy in verbal deception detection, with the effect being most severe in small samples where completely non-diagnostic tools can appear… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [028] Donnie W. Dutton (2018)

Believing is Seeing: The Influence of Expectations on Blind Scoring of Polygraph Data

Polygraph and Forensic Credibility Assessment Polygraph scores and decisions were systematically shifted in the direction of biasing information provided to examiners, demonstrating that confirmation bias can penetrate standardized numerical scoring… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [029] Donnie W. Dutton (2018)

Reducing Inconclusive Results: A Descriptive Analysis of Decision Rules, Weighted Electrodermal Scores and Multinomial Cut-Scores

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment Weighted EDA scores alone reduced inconclusive results by 49%, while combining EDA weighting with multinomial cut-scores achieved a 72% reduction in inconclusive outcomes. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [030] Krapohl, D.J., Dutton, D.W. (2018)

Reducing Bias in Polygraph Scoring: The Effect of Biasing Information on Blind Evaluation of Polygraph Charts

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment Polygraph scores and decisions were significantly shifted in the direction of biasing information, with examiners told cases were deceptive scoring more deceptively than those told… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [031] Minakova, N.N., Bozhich, E.V. (2018)

Multivariate data analysis of polygraph charts for assessment of biophysical characteristics

Izv. AltGU Both PCA and PLS methods successfully analyzed polygraph data to assess human biophysical characteristics and identify physiological response anomalies, with potential applications in insider threat… AI & Machine Learning in Deception Detection [032] Kalafati, A., Krapohl, D.J. (2018)

The difference between the manual and automatic settings for the electrodermal channel and a potential effect on manual scoring

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment: A Journal of Science and Field Practice Manual and automatic EDA modes produce substantially similar aggregate outcomes but may diverge in individual scoring decisions, with automatic mode retaining approximately 90% of data… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [033] Raymond Nelson (2018)

Credibility Assessment Using Bayesian Credible Intervals: A Replication Study

Polygraph Replicated earlier accuracy findings using Bayesian credible intervals and the ESS-M scoring method. Confirmed high accuracy with event-specific polygraphs using four relevant questions. Demonstrated the… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [034] Tuvia Shurany; Nathan J. Gordon (2018)

Idiosyncrasies in Chart Evaluation

European Polygraph The study found that individual physiological response patterns vary significantly, with EDA contributing 55% of reactions, cardio 26%, and pneumo 19%. The authors argue that… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [035] James Allan Matte (2018)

Setting the Record Concerning the Differences Between the Matte Quadri-Track and the Backster Zone Comparison Techniques

European Polygraph The MQTZCT introduced substantive innovations distinguishing it from Backster's technique, including lower truth cut-off scores (+4 vs. ±5), Fear/Hope of Error questions addressing the Othello… Foundational & Historical Research [036] Naohiro Yamamoto (2018)

A new within set judgement method for concealed information test

The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association Full paper content not accessible for analysis. Concealed Information Test (CIT) [037] Raymond Nelson (2018)

Practical Polygraph: A Survey and Description of Decision Rules

APA Magazine Comprehensive survey of decision rules used in modern polygraph testing. Documented the evolution from subjective to objective decision criteria and their impact on reliability and… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [038] Nelson, R. (2018)

Electrodermal signal processing: a correlation study of auto-centered EDA and manually-centered EDA with the Criterion State of Deception and Truth-telling

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment Optimized auto-centered EDA filters equaled or exceeded the criterion correlation of manually-centered EDA, with a coefficient of determination (r²) of 0.49. Automatic processing retained approximately… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [039] Nelson, R. (2017)

Updated numerical distributions for the Empirical Scoring System: An accuracy demonstration with archival datasets with and without the Vasomotor Sensor

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment The updated ESS-M maintained diagnostic accuracy equal to or exceeding the original ESS while successfully incorporating vasomotor sensor data that was previously excluded from scoring… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [040] Bruce White (2017)

The Distribution of Useful Frequencies in Polygraph Sensor Channels

European Polygraph Full text unavailable for analysis. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [041] Nelson, R. (2017)

Multinomial reference distributions for the Empirical Scoring System

Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment The study successfully produced theoretical multinomial reference distributions that showed virtually perfect concordance with Monte Carlo simulations, enabling Bayesian classification that reduced inconclusive results by… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [042] Michiko Tsuneoka, Izumi Matsuda, and Tokihiro Ogawa (2016)

Effectivity of the weighted average method for analysis of respiratory movements in the concealed information test

Japanese Journal of Forensic Science and Technology The weighted average method showed higher detection efficiency than simple averaging. Respiration speed and rate discriminated groups across 20 seconds with better performance at longer… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [043] Raymond Nelson; Benjamin L. Blalock (2016 • ESS EXTENDED ANALYSIS)

Extended Analysis with ESS and OSS-3 on USAF-MGQT Examination Data

Polygraph Applied ESS and OSS-3 to USAF examination data. Found ESS component weighting achieved superior diagnostic extraction compared to simpler three-position scoring models. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [044] (2016)

Data Analysis

Essentials of Polygraph and Polygraph Testing The chapter synthesizes established data analysis methods emphasizing the shift from subjective assessment to standardized numerical scoring systems, reflecting the field's evolution toward evidence-based practice… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [045] David C. Raskin; Charles Robert Honts; Raymond Nelson; Mark Handler (2015)

Monte Carlo Estimates of the Validity of Polygraph Testing

Various Publications Used Monte Carlo simulation methods to estimate polygraph validity across different conditions. Statistical modeling confirmed high accuracy estimates consistent with empirical findings from field and… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [046] Verschuere, B., Kleinberg, B., Theocharidou, K. (2015)

RT-Based Memory Detection: Item Saliency Effects in the Single-Probe and the Multiple-Probe Protocol

Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The multiple-probe protocol significantly outperformed the single-probe protocol across both settings, and high salient items (e.g., first name) were detected better than low salient items… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [047] Ariana B. Dietrich, Xiaoqing Hu, J. Peter Rosenfeld (2014)

The Effects of Sweep Numbers Per Average and Protocol Type on the Accuracy of the P300-Based Concealed Information Test

Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback All three trial counts (33, 66, and 100 sweeps) produced comparable accuracies of 84–94%, with a trend favoring the lowest trial numbers. Testing with as… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [048] Gangqin Li, Zeqing Hu (2014)

An exploratory study of using polygraph to detect deception in patients with traumatic brain injury

NeuroReport Polygraph accuracy dropped from 76.7% in controls to 56.7% in TBI patients (P=0.020), with manual scoring yielding 86.7% vs 61.7% respectively. Within the TBI group,… Foundational & Historical Research [049] Raskin, D.C., Kircher, J.C. (2014)

Validity of polygraph techniques and decision methods

In Credibility Assessment: Scientific Research and Applications (Eds. Raskin, D.C., Honts, C.R., Kircher, J.C.) The review reports approximately 89% accuracy for specific-incident criminal investigations and 85% for screening applications, with laboratory studies showing 91% accuracy for guilty and 89%… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [050] James Allan Matte (2013)

The Connection between Score Threshold, Rate of Inconclusives and Minimum Number of Charts Required for Decision of Truth or Deception

European Polygraph Higher scoring thresholds increase accuracy while maintaining manageable inconclusive rates, with +3 and +1 score thresholds demonstrating equivalent 0.0 error rates. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [051] Charles A. Patton (2013)

The Integrated Zone Comparison Technique: a Field Utility Study in a Deceptive Population

European Polygraph The IZCT achieved 95% overall accuracy including inconclusives and 98% accuracy excluding inconclusives, with zero false negatives, six inconclusive results (4%), and two false positives… Field Validity Studies [052] Handler, M., Honts, C., Nelson, R. (2013)

Information gain of the directed lie screening test

Polygraph DLST/ESS provided meaningful information gain (>5%) across nearly all plausible base rates, substantially exceeding the performance of unassisted professional veracity assessment in both security screening… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [053] Gołaszewski, M., Ibek, A., Widacki, M. (2013)

Współczesne standardy badań poligraficznych

The manual documents validated polygraph techniques with specific accuracy metrics (CIT showing 82.3% accuracy, 81.5% sensitivity, 83.2% specificity), establishes quality control procedures modeled on U.S.… Training, Standards & Professional Practice [054] Tokihiro OGAWA, Izumi MATSUDA, Michiko TSUNEOKA (2013)

Notion of significance in concealed information test.

The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association Effect sizes (92.4% accuracy) and randomization test p-values (90.6% accuracy) substantially outperformed traditional Lykken's scores (83.2%) and likelihood ratios (74.8%) in discriminating guilty from innocent… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [055] Donald J. Krapohl (2013)

Polygraph Principles: A Literature Review

Polygraph Comprehensive review of the scientific principles underlying modern polygraph testing, including signal detection theory, test data analysis methods, and statistical foundations. Served as a reference… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [056] Ogawa, T., Matsuda, I., Tsuneoka, M. (2013)

Accuracy of concealed information test as a memory detection technique: a laboratory study

Japanese Journal of Forensic Science and Technology Visual inspection by expert polygraphers achieved 86.4% sensitivity and 94.5% specificity (excluding 20.4% inconclusive cases); modified Lykken scoring yielded 83% sensitivity and 91% specificity with… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [057] Noordraven, E., Verschuere, B. (2013)

Predicting the sensitivity of the reaction time-based concealed information test

Applied Cognitive Psychology Target-irrelevant response patterns effectively predicted individual CIT sensitivity, improving discrimination accuracy from 86% to 97% hit rate (ROC AUC 0.95) and increasing effect size from… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [058] Nathan J. Gordon; William L. Fleisher (2012)

Effectiveness of the Integrated Zone Comparison Technique (IZCT) with Various Scoring Systems in a Mock Crime Experiment by Students

European Polygraph The study systematically compared three scoring approaches for the IZCT in a controlled environment where ground truth was known, addressing an important gap in polygraph… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [059] James Allan Matte (2012)

Minimum Number of Polygraph Charts Required to Reach a Conclusion of Truth or Deception in Psychophysiological Veracity Examinations

European Polygraph The study provided a mathematical framework for determining chart collection requirements based on reliability coefficients, questioning whether the standard two-chart minimum is scientifically justified. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [060] Viorel Pasca (2012)

Study regarding psychophysiological reactivity values depending on subject's gender in polygraph testing

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences Women showed significantly higher electrodermal amplitude (d = 0.50) and line length scoring (d = 0.58), while men exhibited greater respiration line length (d =… Psychophysiology & Autonomic Responses [061] James Allan Matte (2012)

Effect of the Stimulation Test Administered Before and After the First Relevant Chart of the Control Question Test

European Polygraph The research examined how stimulation test timing influences examinee psychological set and physiological response patterns to relevant and comparison questions across multiple chart positions. Comparison Question Test (CQT) [062] Marcin Gołaszewski (2012)

Validated Techniques and Scoring Models for PDD Test Data Analysis – Conclusions from the 2011 APA Report

European Polygraph The 2011 APA meta-analysis established new mandatory standards requiring only scientifically validated techniques, effectively ending the era when tradition or personal preference alone could justify… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [063] Yusuke SHIBUYA (2012)

Applicability of Multivariate Hierarchical Linear Model to Concealed Information Test data.

The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association Hierarchical linear models provide a principled framework for handling the multi-level structure of CIT data (items within questions within individuals), offering more accurate effect size… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [064] Kircher, J. C., Kristjansson, S., Gardner, M. K., Webb, A. K. (2012)

Human and computer decision-making in the psychophysiological detection of deception

Polygraph Only electrodermal response amplitude, cardiograph baseline increase, and respiration line length proved valid and reliable indicators of deception across all independent samples. Examiners showed systematic… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [065] Raymond Nelson (2012 • MONTE CARLO)

Monte Carlo Study of Criterion Validity for Two-Question Zone Comparison Tests with the ESS

Polygraph Used Monte Carlo simulation methods to establish statistical confidence intervals for ESS scoring across various test formats and decision rules. Provided robust normative data. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [066] James A. Matte (2011)

Commentary on: Horvath F, Palmatier JJ. Critique of Horvath‐Palmatier Laboratory Study on Effectiveness of Exclusive v. Non‐Exclusive Control Questions in Polygraph Examination. J Forensic Sci 2008;53(4):889–99

Journal of Forensic Sciences Matte raised methodological concerns about cuff pressure settings (40-55 mmHg vs. recommended 90 mmHg), test structure deviations from validated protocols, and implementation of exclusive control… Comparison Question Test (CQT) [067] James Allan Matte (2011)

Psychological Aspects of the Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique and Attendant Benefits of its Inside Track

European Polygraph The Inside Track mechanism theoretically addresses the major cause of false positives and inconclusives by quantifying innocent examinees' fear of error and guilty examinees' hope… Comparison Question Test (CQT) [068] James Allan Matte (2011)

Effect of Habituation to Least Threatening Zone Questions on the Most Threatening Zone Comparison Questions in Psychophysiological Veracity Examinations

European Polygraph 62.9% of confirmed deceptive cases showed higher scores in subsequent charts, supporting differential habituation theory where deceptive examinees maintain or increase responsivity to relevant questions… Comparison Question Test (CQT) [069] Pamela K. Shaw (2011)

Using the Empirical Scoring System

Polygraph Validation data across 13 dimensions of criterion accuracy from 5,192 scored results of 732 confirmed ZCT examinations demonstrated strong performance by both experienced and inexperienced… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [070] Vitas Saldžiūnas; Aleksandras Kovalenko (2011)

Efficiency Formula for Polygraph Examination

European Polygraph A mathematical formula was developed to calculate polygraph examination efficiency based on quantitative parameters. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [071] Matsuda, I., Ogawa, T. (2011)

Improved method for calculating the respiratory line length in the concealed information test

International Journal of Psychophysiology The weighted average method successfully removed systematic bias in respiration line length calculations and significantly increased discrimination performance compared to the original method in experimental… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [072] Yusuke Shibuya (2011)

Effects of Within-individual Standardization on Statistical Test and Effect Size on the Concealed Information Test.

Japanese Journal of Forensic Science and Technology The study found that the choice of within-individual standardization method significantly affects both statistical test results and calculated effect sizes in CIT data analysis. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [073] Benjamin L. Blalock (2011)

Criterion validity of the Empirical Scoring System and the Objective Scoring System, version 3 with the USAF Modified General Question Technique

Polygraph Manual ESS achieved 88.2% unweighted accuracy, automated ESS achieved 89.7%, and the OSS-3 computer algorithm reached 90.2% correct decisions, with Pearson correlations between scoring models… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [074] Benjamin L. Blalock (2011)

Reliability of the Empirical Scoring System with expert examiners

Polygraph Fleiss kappa of .61 (95% CI: .54–.68) indicated substantial inter-rater agreement on numerical scores, while mean decision agreement reached 95.4% excluding inconclusive results, significantly exceeding… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [075] Tokihiro OGAWA, Izumi MATSUDA (2011)

Effect of stimulus probabilities on physiological responses in the concealed information test

The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association The weighted average method successfully removed bias in respiration line length calculations and significantly increased discrimination performance in experimental CIT data compared to the original… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [076] Mark Handler; Raymond Nelson; Walt Goodson; Matt Hicks (2011 • CROSS-CULTURAL ESS)

Empirical Scoring System: A Cross-Cultural Replication and Extension Study

Polygraph International validation with 19 trainees scoring 100 confirmed cases. Achieved mean accuracy of 90.1% (95% CI: 83.8–95.8%), demonstrating ESS validity across cultures. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [077] Nelson, R., Krapohl, D. (2011)

Criterion Validity of the Empirical Scoring System with experienced examiners: Comparison with the seven-position evidentiary model Using the Federal Zone Comparison Technique

Polygraph No statistically significant differences were found between the ESS and seven-position evidentiary model across 13 dimensions of criterion accuracy when scored by experienced examiners. More… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [078] Varlamov, V., Varlamov, G. (2010)

Lie Detection with Computer

Computerized scoring systems can apply consistent measurement standards across variable field conditions, and examinees must maintain an optimal stress level (inverted-U relationship) to produce interpretable… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [079] James Allan Matte (2010)

A Field Study of the Backster Zone Comparison Technique's Either-Or Rule and Scoring System Versus Two Other Scoring Systems When Relevant Question Elicits Strong Response

European Polygraph The study analyzed the comparative effectiveness of the Backster Either-Or Rule versus the federal scoring system and Matte Quadri-Track system in handling strong relevant question… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [080] Krapohl, D.J., Handler, M.D., Gordon, N.J., Lombardi, C., Senter, S.M. (2010)

An Assessment of the Backster Either-Or Rule in Polygraph 240 Scoring

Polygraph Application of the Either-Or Rule increased correct decisions from 70% to 80% and reduced inconclusives from 27% to 17%, with all improvements attributable to better… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [081] Wolfgang Ambach (2010)

Advances in the concealed information test: Introductory remarks

International Journal of Psychophysiology The editorial introduced research demonstrating that multimodal measurement combining autonomic responses with event-related potentials enhances CIT validity, and that various presentation modalities and testing parameters… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [082] Donald J. Krapohl (2010 • SHORT REPORT)

A Test of the ESS with Two-Question Field Cases

Polygraph Validated ESS for two-question test formats. Found accuracy remained robust even with reduced question count, supporting ESS utility for shorter examinations. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [083] Nelson, R., Handler, M. (2010)

Empirical Scoring System: NPC Quick Reference

Inexperienced examiners using ESS achieved mean accuracy of 90.1% (95% CI = 83.8% to 95.8%) with only 3.3% inconclusives, and demonstrated 85% inter-rater agreement, indicating… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [084] Tuvia Shurany; James Allan Matte; Einat Stein (2009)

Influence of case facts on blind scorers of polygraph tests

European Polygraph The study assessed whether contextual information, particularly incriminating evidence like fingerprint matches, biases blind scoring of polygraph quality control reviews. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [085] Benjamin L. Blalock; Barry Cushman; Raymond Nelson (2009 • ESS REPLICATION)

A Replication and Validation Study on an Empirically Based Manual Scoring System

Polygraph Replicated ESS validation with independent sample of confirmed cases. Results consistent with original validation studies, supporting reliability of the scoring method. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [086] Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (2009)

Comparison of the Objective Scoring System and Probability Analysis

NCJRS (US Government) Both the Objective Scoring System and Probability Analysis demonstrated equivalent accuracy with no significant differences in area under the ROC curve for either Zone Comparison… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [087] Matsuda, I., Hirota, A., Ogawa, T., Takasawa, N., Shigemasu, K. (2009)

Within-individual discrimination on the concealed information test using dynamic mixture modeling

Psychophysiology The hidden Markov discrimination method showed superior performance compared to conventional within-individual scoring approaches in a mock theft experiment with 34 participants, successfully modeling physiological… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [088] Donald J. Krapohl (2008)

Test Structure and Administration

European Polygraph The Utah-CQT approach provides some of the highest rates of criterion accuracy and interrater reliability of any polygraph examination protocol when applied in event-specific testing… Training, Standards & Professional Practice [089] Sartori, G., Agosta, S., Zogmaister, C., Ferrara, S.D., Castiello, U. (2008)

How to accurately detect autobiographical events

Psychological Science The aIAT achieved 91% correct classification rates at both group and individual levels, with test-retest reliability exceeding 90% and split-half reliability showing 88% agreement. The… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [090] Horvath, F., Palmatier, J.J. (2008)

Effect of two types of control questions and two question formats on the outcomes of polygraph examinations

Journal of Forensic Sciences Nonexclusive control questions achieved significantly higher accuracy rates (85% for guilty, 91% for innocent) compared to exclusive time-bar control questions (χ² = 11.46, p =… Laboratory & Analog Studies [091] Nelson, R., Handler, M., Krapohl, D. (2008)

Development and validation of the Objective Scoring System version 3

Polygraph OSS-3 achieved 88% average decision accuracy with balanced sensitivity and specificity, with computer algorithms providing perfect interrater reliability compared to human scorers (κ = .58–.61)… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [092] Raymond Nelson; Mark Handler; Donald J. Krapohl (2008 • OSS-3 DEVELOPMENT)

Objective Scoring System, Version 3 (OSS-3): Development and Validation

Polygraph Described the OSS-3 algorithm and used brute-force methods to compare accuracy against previous versions and human examiners. OSS-3 demonstrated balanced sensitivity/specificity and outperformed 10 human… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [093] Raymond Nelson; Donald J. Krapohl; Mark Handler (2008 • ESS DEVELOPMENT)

An Empirically Based Normative System for Test Data Analysis

Polygraph Introduced the Empirical Scoring System based on normative physiological data. Provided validation across 732 confirmed examinations scored by 140 examiners in 16 cohorts. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [094] Stuart M. Senter; Andrew Belvin Dollins (2008 • TWO-STAGE APPROACH)

Exploration of a Two-Stage Approach for PDD Data Analysis

Polygraph Developed two-stage scoring approach combining Grand Total and Spot Score rules. Reduced inconclusive rates while maintaining decision accuracy, adopted widely in federal practice. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [095] Eldad Meiron; Donald J. Krapohl; T. Ashkenazi (2008 • MEIRON ASSESSMENT)

An Assessment of the Backster ‘Either-Or’ Rule in Polygraph Scoring

Polygraph Empirically tested Backster’s long-standing “Either-Or” scoring rule. Found the rule did not improve accuracy and recommended against its routine use, updating decades of practice. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [096] Brandon G. Bell; John C. Kircher; Peter C. Bernhardt (2008)

New measures improve the accuracy of the directed-lie test when detecting deception using a mock crime

Physiology & Behavior New physiological measures improved the accuracy of directed-lie tests when detecting deception in mock crime scenarios. The study addressed previous limitations showing that respiration measures… Laboratory & Analog Studies [097] Geert Crombez (2008)

Combining physiological measures in the detection of concealed information

Physiology & Behavior SCR demonstrated significantly higher ROC AUC values than both HR and RLL as standalone measures; a weighted logistic regression combining all three physiological channels produced… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [098] Raymond Nelson; Mark Handler; Donald J. Krapohl; Raymond Nelson; Donald J. Krapohl; Mark Handler; Raymond Nelson (2007 – 2011)

Development of the Objective Scoring System (OSS) and Empirical Scoring System (ESS)

Polygraph Developed and validated the OSS and ESS computerized scoring methods, resulting in more objective and stable analysis of psychophysiological outcomes. These systems replaced subjective hand-scoring… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [099] Jerzy Konieczny (2007)

Selected aspects of uncertainty in polygraph examination

European Polygraph The study identifies multiple sources of uncertainty in polygraph examinations that can impact test reliability and accuracy. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [100] Barry Cushman (2006)

Comparison of evidentiary and investigative decision rules: A replication

Polygraph Evidentiary Decision Rules outperformed Investigative Decision Rules on accuracy, inconclusive rate reduction, and error balance, replicating and confirming the findings of the prior Krapohl (2005)… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [101] Elaad, E., Ben-Shakhar, G. (2006)

Finger pulse waveform length in the detection of concealed information

International Journal of Psychophysiology FPWL achieved detection accuracy comparable to established measures (SCR .70–.84, RLL .73–.82), with improved performance when measures were combined. FPWL showed potential resistance to habituation… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [102] Nathan J. Gordon; Feroze B. Mohamed; Scott H. Faro; Steven M. Platek; Harris Ahmad; J. Michael Williams (2006)

Integrated zone comparison polygraph technique accuracy with scoring algorithms

Physiology & Behavior All three algorithms achieved 100% accuracy when inconclusive results were excluded. When inconclusives were counted as errors, ASIT Poly Suite achieved 90% accuracy while PolyScore… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [103] Matsuda, I., Hirota, A., Ogawa, T., Takasawa, N., Shigemasu, K. (2006)

A new discrimination method for the concealed information test using pretest data and within-individual comparisons

Biological Psychology The latent class discrimination method showed superior discrimination performance compared to conventional statistical methods by incorporating pretest card test data and accounting for individual response… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [104] Donnie W. Dutton (2005)

The Impact of Averaging Assigned Scores on Polygraph Decision Accuracy

Polygraph Averaging assigned scores from multiple evaluators prior to the decision stage did not consistently or significantly improve ZCT decision accuracy compared to the traditional individual… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [105] Stuart M. Senter (2005)

An Exploration of Methods for the Analysis of Multiple-Issue Relevant/Irrelevant Screening Data

Polygraph Different scoring and analytical methods produce meaningfully different accuracy and inconclusive rates on Multiple-Issue R/I data, with structured numerical scoring demonstrating superior consistency over subjective… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [106] Donald J. Krapohl (2005 • EVIDENTIARY RULES)

Polygraph Decision Rules for Evidentiary and Paired Testing (Marin Protocol)

Polygraph Established decision rules specifically for evidentiary-quality polygraph examinations, with more conservative cutscores to minimize errors in legal contexts. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [107] Gisli H. Gudjonsson, Jon Fridrik Sigurdsson (2004)

The relationship of suggestibility and compliance with self-deception and other-deception

Psychology, Crime & Law Self-deception and other-deception did not significantly correlate with suggestibility or compliance scores, confirming that self-favouring bias does not substantially influence the Gudjonsson scales. Foundational & Historical Research [108] Senter, S., Dollins, A., Krapohl, D. (2004)

A Comparison of Polygraph Data Evaluation Conventions Used at the University of Utah and the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute

Polygraph All scorers achieved highest accuracy using University of Utah chart evaluation rules regardless of training institution, demonstrating that scoring conventions rather than examiner skill accounted… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [109] Andrew Belvin Dollins (2003)

Relative efficacy of the Utah, Backster, and federal scoring rules: A preliminary investigation

Polygraph The Backster scoring system produced larger negative values and an imbalance in conclusive scores compared to Utah and Federal systems, but no meaningful difference in… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [110] Stuart M. Senter (2003 • DECISION RULES)

Modified General Question Test Decision Rule Exploration

Polygraph Systematic exploration of decision rules for the MGQT format. Identified optimal cutscores and two-stage decision rules that maximized accuracy while minimizing inconclusive rates. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [111] Ben-Shakhar, G., Elaad, E. (2002)

Effects of questions' repetition and variation on the efficiency of the guilty knowledge test: A reexamination

Journal of Applied Psychology Electrodermal detection efficiency showed a dramatic monotonic increase with question diversity, achieving ROC areas of 0.68, 0.81, and 0.99 for conditions with 1, 4, and… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [112] Donnie W. Dutton (2001)

The Rank Order Scoring System: Replication and Extension with Field Data

Polygraph ROSS achieved 80.3% accuracy with inconclusives and 91.6% without them in a 300-case field sample, showing no statistically significant difference in accuracy compared to traditional… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [113] Stuart M. Senter (2001)

New Decision Rule Development: Exploration of a Two-Stage Approach

DoDPI Research Reports The Two-Stage Rule (TSR) successfully reduced the proportion of inconclusive polygraph test results while maintaining classification accuracy equivalent to the Grand Total Rule alone, with… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [114] Matthew Soskins (2001)

The case for peak-to-peak measurement of P300 recorded at .3 hz high pass filter settings in detection of deception

International Journal of Psychophysiology The 0.3 Hz high-pass filter combined with peak-to-peak P300 amplitude measurement achieved 100% correct classification (26/26) in a laboratory deception paradigm, yielding on average 20%… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [115] John C. Kircher, Ted Packard, Brian G. Bell, Paul C. Bernhard (2001)

Comparison of Skin Conductance and Skin Resistance Measures for the Detection of Deception

The research demonstrated that stimulation pretests can contribute to increased polygraph test accuracy. The study also provided comparative data on skin conductance versus skin resistance… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [116] Donnie W. Dutton (2000)

Guide for Performing the Objective Scoring System

Polygraph Dutton's guide demonstrated that all OSS scoring decisions can be derived entirely from direct physical measurement of three Kircher physiological features, eliminating subjective chart interpretation… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [117] Harwell, E.M. (2000)

A comparison of 3- and 7-position scoring scales with field examinations

Polygraph The 3-position scoring scale demonstrated criterion accuracy significantly greater than chance with no significant differences in test sensitivity to deception compared to the 7-position model… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [118] Stuart M. Senter (2000)

Comparison of Utah and DoDPI Scoring Accuracy: Equating Veracity Decision Rule, Chart Rule, and Number of Data Channels Used

DoDPI Research Reports When veracity decision rules, chart number, and data channels were equated, DoDPI and Utah scorers showed no significant differences in accuracy; however, the University of… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [119] Stanley Abrams (2000)

Polygraph Validity in the New Millennium

Polygraph The 7-position scale with +/-6 cutoff achieved highest accuracy with elevated inconclusive rates; accuracy was higher for truthful than deceptive subjects (reversing prior findings); electrodermal… Field Validity Studies [120] Ansley, N., Krapohl, D.J. (2000)

The frequency of appearance of evaluative criteria in field polygraph charts

Polygraph Electrodermal activity accounted for 55% of all reactions, followed by cardiograph (26%) and pneumograph (19%). Criteria frequency ranged from 5 to 4,793 appearances, with rank… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [121] Krapohl, D. J., Norris, W. F. (2000)

An exploratory study of traditional and objective scoring systems with MGQT field cases

Polygraph Human scorers demonstrated better sensitivity to deception while the OSS model outperformed human scorers in specificity to truthfulness, revealing that applying cumulative scoring models to… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [122] Elaad, E. (1999)

The Control Question Technique: A search for improved decision

Asymmetric cutoff scores partially remedied imbalanced error rates in field CQT examinations, with optimal decision boundaries depending on the relative costs assigned to false positive… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [123] Swinford, J. (1999)

Manually Scoring Polygraph Charts Utilizing the Seven-Position Numerical Analysis Scale at the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute

Polygraph The documentation identified 22 distinct physiological reaction criteria (12 respiration, 3 electrodermal, 7 cardiovascular) and established hierarchical scoring rules based on the number and quality… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [124] Tuvya T. Amsel (1999 • INTERNATIONAL FIELD)

Exclusive or Nonexclusive Comparison Questions: A Comparative Field Study

Polygraph Israeli field study comparing exclusive vs. non-exclusive comparison question formats. Found both formats produced comparable accuracy rates in real criminal investigations. Field Validity Studies [125] Brandon G. Bell; David C. Raskin; Charles Robert Honts; John C. Kircher (1999 • NUMERICAL SCORING)

The Utah Numerical Scoring System

Polygraph Formalized the Utah-CQT numerical scoring system resulting from 30+ years of scientific research. Provided standardized procedures achieving highest rates of criterion accuracy and inter-rater reliability. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [126] Light, G. D. (1999)

Numerical evaluation of the Army zone comparison test

Polygraph The study detailed the Army ZCT seven-position numerical scoring system (-3 to +3) with standardized criteria for evaluating respiration, electrodermal, cardiovascular, and vasomotor responses, documenting… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [127] John J.B. Allen (1997)

A comparison of methods for the analysis of event-related potentials in deception detection

Psychophysiology All three ERP analysis methods achieved extremely high classification accuracy under ROC evaluation, and the bootstrapping procedure's apparent sensitivity to motivational incentive was revealed to… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [128] Elaad, E., Ben-Shakhar, G. (1997)

Effects of items' repetitions and variations on the efficiency of the guilty knowledge test

Psychophysiology Similar detection efficiencies were obtained when a single question was repeated 12 times versus when four different questions were each repeated 3 times. Accumulating information… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [129] David C. Raskin; Charles Robert Honts; John C. Kircher (1997 • FIELD REVIEW)

Review of Field Studies of CQT Since 1988

Book Chapters Review of all field studies published since 1988 producing an overall accuracy of 90.5%. Documented consistent improvement in field accuracy with adoption of numerical scoring… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [130] Elaad, E., Ginton, A., Ben-Shakhar, G. (1994)

The effects of prior expectations and outcome knowledge on polygraph examiners' decisions

Journal of Behavioral Decision Making Prior expectations created statistically significant bias in scoring inconclusive polygraph charts, affecting both experienced and inexperienced examiners. However, when physiological evidence clearly contradicted expectations, judgments… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [131] Burlingame, G., Kircher, J. C., Honts, C. R. (1994)

Analysis of variance versus bootstrap procedures for analyzing dependent observation in small group research

Small Group Research Bootstrap procedures substantially outperformed ANOVA in maintaining appropriate Type I error rates under conditions of observational dependency, while ANOVA showed dramatically inflated error rates as… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [132] Richard I. Lanyon (1993)

Development of scales to assess specific deception strategies in the Psychological Screening Inventory.

Psychological Assessment Four strategy-specific validity scales successfully differentiated distinct deception approaches on the PSI, demonstrating effectiveness similar to MMPI-2 validity scales and showing expected patterns across 15… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [133] Kendall W. Shull; M. Crowe (1993)

Effects of two methods of comparing relevant and control questions on the accuracy of psychophysiological detection of deception

DoDPI Research Reports The study found differences between two methods of comparing relevant and control question responses, though specific accuracy outcomes are not detailed in available materials. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [134] Eitan Elaad; Avital Ginton; Noam Jungman (1992)

Detection Measures in Real-Life Criminal Guilty Knowledge Tests

Journal of Applied Psychology Another critical field study of CIT with real criminal cases. Found detection rates consistent with laboratory predictions, though noted challenges with false negative rates in… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [135] Matte, J.A., Reuss, R. (1992)

A Study of the Relative Effectiveness of Physiological Data in Field Polygraph Examinations

Polygraph The lower pneumograph was the most productive respiratory measure overall (51% of cases) and particularly effective for male examinees, while females showed more balanced upper/lower… Field Validity Studies [136] Capps, M. H., Ansley, N. (1992)

Analysis of federal polygraph charts by spot and chart total

Polygraph Examiners achieved 82.0% overall accuracy in blind chart reviews, with significantly higher accuracy for deceptive cases (89.3%) compared to truthful cases (72.2%), revealing important asymmetries… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [137] Capps, M. H., Ansley, N. (1992)

Numerical scoring of polygraph charts: What examiners really do

Polygraph Examiners achieved 82% overall accuracy (361/440 decisions) in blind chart review, with 72.2% accuracy for truthful cases and 89.3% for deceptive cases. Respiratory suppression was… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [138] Rosenfeld, J.P., Angell, A., Johnson, M., Qian, J.H. (1991)

An ERP-based, control-question lie detector analog: Algorithms for discriminating effects within individuals' average waveforms

Psychophysiology Experiment 1 achieved 92.3% accuracy for guilty subjects and 86.7% for innocent subjects. However, a 7-14 day delay without additional rehearsal reduced guilty detection to… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [139] Patrick, C. J., Iacono, W. G. (1991)

Validity of the control question polygraph test: The problem of sampling bias

Journal of Applied Psychology The study found 55% accuracy for innocent subjects but could not establish a valid accuracy estimate for guilty subjects due to near-total dependence on confessions… Field Validity Studies [140] Christopher J. Patrick; William George Iacono (1991)

A comparison of field and laboratory polygraphs in the detection of deception

Psychophysiology Overall hit rates were essentially the same for laboratory polygraph quantitative measures (73%) and field polygraph numerical scores (79%), with electrodermal activity and respiration suppression… Laboratory & Analog Studies [141] Patricia Morris; Donald A. Weinstein (1988)

A Comparative Investigation of the Reliability Between Differing Scoring Systems

DoDPI Research Reports The study examined whether different numerical scoring systems produced comparable levels of consistency when multiple trained scorers evaluated identical polygraph charts. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [142] Gordon, N., Cochetti, P. (1987)

The Horizontal Scoring System

Polygraph The rank-order method showed accuracy rates of 90-93% in subsequent validation studies, though it was limited to single-issue testing situations and some diagnostic criteria lacked… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [143] Gordon H. Barland (1985 • ESTIMATION METHOD)

A Method of Estimating the Accuracy of Individual Control Question Polygraph Tests

Proceedings of IDENTA, 1985, 142–147 Proposed an innovative method for estimating individual test accuracy from physiological response magnitudes. Laid groundwork for confidence-based polygraph decision reporting. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [144] Ben-Shakhar, G. (1985)

Standardization Within Individuals: A Simple Method to Neutralize Individual Differences in Skin Conductance

Psychophysiology Within-subject standardization (z-scores) consistently produced superior discrimination between relevant and neutral stimuli compared to range correction methods across all five data sets examined. The standardization… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [145] Weaver, R.S. (1985)

Effects of differing numerical chart evaluation systems on polygraph examination results

Polygraph The three systems differed substantially in complexity of rules, scale granularity (3-position vs. 7-position scales), comparison question pairing strategies, and emphasis on specific physiological features… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [146] Backster, C. (1983)

Selection of Two Most Productive 'You-Phase' Charts. Revision of the Backster Zone Comparison Test Numerical Cutoff table

The 1983 revision established updated protocols for selecting the two most productive You-Phase charts and refined numerical cutoff thresholds, with scores of +5 or -9… Foundational & Historical Research [147] Slowik, S. (1982)

Global Evaluation: An Inductive Approach to Case Resolution

Polygraph Global evaluation, when properly conducted, is a systematic integration of multiple data sources—not subjective impression—and serves to identify possible polygraph errors and enhance correct decisions… Training, Standards & Professional Practice [148] Israel Lieblich (1982)

An evaluation of polygraphers' judgments: A review from a decision theoretic perspective

Journal of Applied Psychology Polygraphers systematically weighted detection of guilty suspects far more heavily than protection of innocent examinees, and formal decision-theoretic analysis showed the CQT is unlikely to… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [149] Szucko, J.J., Kleinmuntz, B. (1981)

Statistical versus clinical lie detection

American Psychologist Clinical interpretation achieved 71% detection of guilty subjects but misclassified 50% of innocent participants as deceptive, while statistical analysis achieved 80% overall accuracy, suggesting examiners… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [150] Dawson, M.E. (1981)

Physiological detection of deception: Measurement of responses to questions and answers during countermeasure maneuvers

Psychophysiology Professional actors' mental countermeasures proved completely ineffective, with 100% of guilty subjects correctly detected and no false negatives. However, innocent subjects experienced false positive rates… Countermeasures Research [151] Matte, J.A. (1980)

The Art and Science of the Polygraph Technique

The textbook established frameworks for understanding how psychological factors interact with autonomic nervous system responses during polygraph testing and introduced standardized, objective approaches to polygraph… Foundational & Historical Research [152] Backster, C. (1979)

Standardized Polygraph Notepack and Technique Guide

The Backster Zone Comparison Technique introduced the first numerical scoring system for polygraph chart interpretation and achieved mean criterion accuracy of .86 in subsequent validation… Foundational & Historical Research [153] Laura I. Rovner; David C. Raskin; John C. Kircher (1979 • EXPERIMENTAL)

Validity of CQT in Laboratory Mock Crime Study

Psychophysiology One of the Utah group’s foundational mock crime experiments with 72 volunteers. Established the Federal Zone of Comparison technique validity using numerical scoring, with accuracy… Laboratory & Analog Studies [154] Shlomo (Sol) Kugelmass (1978)

Decision Theory Approach to the Problem of Polygraph Interrogation

Journal of Applied Psychology The study demonstrated mathematically that polygraph test accuracy cannot be evaluated in isolation — low base rates of deception in screened populations demand impossibly high… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [155] Lawrence F. Van Egeren (1977 • PHYSIOLOGICAL)

Multivariate Statistical Analysis of Polygraph Variables

Psychophysiology Applied multivariate statistics to polygraph data analysis. Demonstrated that combining multiple physiological channels provided superior discrimination compared to any single measure alone. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [156] Ohmishi, K., Matsuno, K., Arasuna, M., Suzuki, A. (1976)

The objective Analysis of Physiological Indices in the Field Detection of Deception

Reports of the National Institute of Police Science Skin conductance response emerged as the most discriminating physiological measure in field applications, with objective scoring methods reducing variability in examiner decisions compared to purely… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [157] Ansley, N., Weir, R. (1976)

A numerical scoring system for Relevant-Irrelevant polygraph tests

Paper presented at the 1976 Annual Seminar of the American Polygraph Association The presentation introduced a numerical scoring approach for R-I tests to address standardization concerns, though the R-I technique's fundamental theoretical limitations regarding differential psychological salience… Foundational & Historical Research [158] Frank Hunter (1975)

The Influence of Auxiliary Sources of Information in Polygraph Diagnoses

Journal of Police Science and Administration Auxiliary case information demonstrably biased polygraph diagnostic outcomes, with examiners given incriminating background showing a systematic shift toward deceptive verdicts relative to blind chart-only evaluators. Scoring & Test Data Analysis [159] Barland, G.H., Raskin, D.C. (1975)

An Evaluation of Field Techniques in Detection of Deception

Psychophysiology The study achieved 81% correct classification excluding inconclusives. Electrodermal (skin resistance) measures proved most discriminating, followed by cardiovascular and respiration. Blind evaluations by five examiners… Laboratory & Analog Studies [160] Stanley M. Slowik; Joseph P. Buckley (1975 • FIELD STUDY)

Relative Accuracy of Polygraph Examiner Diagnosis of Respiration, Blood Pressure, and GSR Recordings

Journal of Police Science and Administration Field study comparing diagnostic value of individual physiological channels. Found electrodermal (GSR) measures provided the most diagnostic information, followed by cardiovascular and respiratory channels. Field Validity Studies [161] Frank Hunter; Philip Ash (1973 • FIELD STUDY)

The Accuracy and Consistency of Polygraph Examiners’ Diagnoses

Journal of Police Science and Administration Examined real criminal cases with confirmed outcomes. Found examiner accuracy of 92.4% for deceptive subjects and 95.5% for truthful subjects when using structured scoring methods. Field Validity Studies [162] Barland, G. H. (1972)

An experimental study of field techniques in lie detection

Department of Psychology, University of Utah The zone comparison control question technique successfully differentiated guilty from innocent subjects, with electrodermal (skin conductance) measures proving to be the most accurate indicator of… Laboratory & Analog Studies [163] Edelberg, R. (1970)

The information content of the recovery limb of the electrodermal response

Psychophysiology Recovery rate successfully differentiated spontaneous responses during rest versus tasks, orienting responses versus responses to signals, and alerting versus execution signals. Individuals with fast recovery… Psychophysiology & Autonomic Responses [164] Shlomo (Sol) Kugelmass (1970)

Guilty Knowledge Technique: Application of Signal Detection Measures

Journal of Applied Psychology Under a fixed a priori decision rule, 98% of innocent and 42% of guilty subjects were correctly classified; applying an SDT-optimal decision rule improved guilty… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [165] Backster, C. (1969)

Technique Fundamentals of the Tri-Zone Polygraph Test

Backster developed the first numerical scoring system using a seven-point scale (-3 to +3) for evaluating physiological responses in comparison question tests, and established the… Foundational & Historical Research [166] Backster, C. (1969)

Technique Fundamentals of Tri-Zone Polygraph Test

Backster formalized a structured three-zone question format (red/relevant, green/comparison, black/irrelevant) with numerical scoring (+3 to -3) across multiple physiological channels, establishing the You-Phase examination as… Foundational & Historical Research [167] Backster, C. (1969)

Standardized Polygraph Notepack and Technique Guide. Backster Zone Comparison Technique

The ZCT pioneered numerical scoring in polygraph interpretation, replacing subjective assessment with a three-zone structure and cut-off scores (±5). This innovation became the most widely… Foundational & Historical Research [168] Backster, C. (1969)

Standardized polygraph examination notepack

The notepack established the three-zone structure (Red, Green, Black zones) and numerical scoring system (+3 to -3) that became the foundation for modern polygraph examination… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [169] Lykken, D. T., Rose, R., Luther, B., Maley, M. (1966)

Correcting psychophysiological measures for individual differences in range

Psychological Bulletin Range correction significantly reduced error variance in psychophysiological data and produced larger, more statistically significant treatment effects by normalizing individual differences in autonomic response capacity. Psychophysiology & Autonomic Responses [170] Kubis, J. F. (1964)

Analysis of Polygraphic Data

Contrary to expectations, Dependent Judgment situations (comparing multiple suspects' charts) did not increase decision accuracy over Independent Judgment (evaluating charts individually), possibly due to greater… Scoring & Test Data Analysis [171] Ohkawa, H. (1963)

Comparison of Physiological Response of 'Yes', 'No', and 'Mute' Conditions In Peak of Tension Test

Reports of the National Institute of Police Science Silent/mute response conditions produced cleaner physiological recordings with fewer movement artifacts compared to verbal response conditions, suggesting response format significantly influences the quality of physiological… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [172] Richard O. Arther (1955)

Blood Pressure Rises on Relevant Questions in Lie Detection: Sometimes an Indication of Innocence Not Guilt

The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science Innocent examinees demonstrated significant blood pressure elevations on relevant questions driven by anxiety about false accusation rather than fear of detection, with distinct physiological patterns… Foundational & Historical Research [173] Paul V. Trovillo (1942)

Deception Test Criteria: How One Can Determine Truth and Falsehood from Polygraphic Records

Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Trovillo identified and classified 23 physiological response patterns indicative of deception — 11 cardiovascular, 6 respiratory, and 6 electrodermal — marking the first formal, peer-reviewed… Foundational & Historical Research [174] Larson, J.A. (1938)

The lie-detector. Its history and development

Journal of Michigan State Medical Society Nine trained psychologists showed profound disagreement when interpreting identical polygraph charts from truthful suspects, with deception classifications ranging from 5 to 33 of 61 truthful… Foundational & Historical Research [175] (0)

Practices for Interpretation of Psychophysiological Detection of Deception (Polygraph) Data

The standard requires that acceptable test data analysis procedures be published in refereed journals with confirmed replications, that examiners use only methods for which they… Scoring & Test Data Analysis