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CQT
This topic encompasses 449 peer-reviewed studies, primarily in the field of foundational & historical research. Research in this area spans from the 0s to the 2020s.
449Studies
0s–2020sSpan
18Categories
355Researchers
Research categories
Key researchers
Studies tagged “CQT” [449]
All 449 peer-reviewed studies in this research area, sorted by year.
[001]
(2025)
Possible Sources of the Difference in the Severity of the Prior Information Effect on Polygraph Scoring Found in Three Published Studies
Psychological Reports Prior information effects on polygraph scoring vary significantly across studies, with real-world impact estimated to adversely affect only 3-5% of polygraph examinations in practice. [002] (2025)Positioning and Standardization Pathways of Polygraph Technology in Judicial Proof
Journal of Sociology and Education Polygraph technology should serve an auxiliary rather than determinative role in judicial proof, requiring standardization across technical protocols, personnel qualifications, procedural legitimacy, and result review… [003] (2025)A multilayer perceptron neural network prediction approach to polygraph scoring
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMPUTERS COMMUNICATIONS & CONTROL The MLP neural network achieved 80% correct classification rate predicting deception levels in 400 offender examinations based on four psychophysiological indicators, with performance consistent with… [004] (2025)Use of the Polygraph during Interrogation: Procedural, Forensic, and Psychological Issues
Herald of criminal justice International jurisprudence demonstrates polygraphs are inadmissible as independent evidence but may serve as auxiliary pre-trial tools. Specialist reports must use presence/absence of significant reactions formula,… [005] (2024)Lie Detection Based on Acoustic Analysis
Journal of Voice Voice Onset Time achieved 88.8% accuracy (both sensitivity and specificity) in detecting deception, with 95% confidence intervals of 0.803-0.973, demonstrating that acoustic features can effectively… [006] (2024)Psychology and the Lie Detector Industry: A Fifty-Year Perspective
Psychophysiology Comprehensive 50-year retrospective on polygraph science since Lykken (1974). Reviews the evolution of CQT, CIT, and screening tests. Notes that government promotion has expanded polygraph… [007] (2024)Psychophysiological and Psychological Foundations of Theories and Practices of Deception Diagnosis
Emotional Development and Youths' Predisposition to Deception The chapter establishes that emotions are critically important in deception manifestation and that polygraph methods must account for motivational, moral, and emotional sphere aspects. Emotional… [008] (2024)POLYGRAPH TECHNIQUES OF COMPARISON QUESTIONS: THEORY AND PRACTICE OF RESEARCH, PROSPECTS OF APPLYING
NAUKA I PRAVOOKHORONA Meta-analytic evidence supports CQT accuracy with effect sizes around r = 0.69, with probable-lie questions (r = 0.71) slightly outperforming directed-lie variants (r = 0.61).… [009] (2024)Physiological Reactions Profiling in Polygraph Testing: Insights from Fuzzy C-Means Clustering Analysis
Acta Polytechnica Hungarica Fuzzy clustering identified distinct physiological profiles across 18 parameters with a moderate R² of 0.371 and a low silhouette coefficient of 0.010, indicating that physiological… [010] (2024)The use of the “attitudechange” technique in conducting a special psychophysiological examination with application of polygraph
Russian Journal of Deviant Behavior The attitude change technique effectively neutralized the accusatory bias of polygraph testing when working with anxious subjects, significantly reducing false positive rates and improving overall… [011] (2024)Evaluating Physiological Indicators in Detecting Deception with an Automated Interviewing System
bioRxiv (preprint) The study represents one of the few systematic comparisons of multiple physiological modalities within a single experimental framework, conducted with a diverse Asian population to… [012] (2023)Polygraph Testing in Criminal Proceedings: Safe and Sound or Swimming Against the Tide? A Legal and Criminological-Psychological Analysis Based on its Use in Belgium
European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice Belgium performs over 300 Comparison Question Tests annually for serious offenses including murder, rape, theft, and arson, operated by five specially trained police officers, despite… [013] (2023)Polygraph Testing in Criminal Proceedings: A Legal and Criminological-Psychological Analysis Based on its Use in Belgium
European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice Belgium represents a unique case in Western Europe by formally codifying polygraph use in criminal investigations at a time when most European countries have avoided… [014] (2023)State v. Pierce: Refining the Standard for the Admission of Polygraph Evidence
Tennessee Journal of Law and Policy The Tennessee Supreme Court ruled that polygraph evidence is inherently unreliable and therefore inadmissible at sentencing, including in sex offender risk assessment reports, ending the… [015] (2023)МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ ПРОВЕДЕНИЯ ПСИХОФИЗИОЛОГИЧЕСКОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ, ОСУЩЕСТВЛЯЕМОГО С ПОМОЩЬЮ ПОЛИГРАФА
BULLETIN Series Psychology The research presents a comprehensive methodology utilizing multi-channel physiological monitoring (electrodermal, respiratory, cardiovascular, and tremor responses) combined with three testing protocols (SAT, TOKV, P-TZV) and… [016] (2023)The Primacy Position of the Comparison Question
European Polygraph The study provides analysis of how primacy positioning influences comparison question effectiveness in polygraph examinations. [017] (2023)Getting the better understanding of truth: Diving into the polygraph test
Indian Journal of Forensic and Community Medicine Three case studies illustrate how voluntary polygraph examinations using the Control Question Test format can assist criminal investigations in India's consent-based legal framework, though the… [018] (2023)Effects of Individual Traits on Polygraph Test Results
Criminal Investigation Studies The study analyzed relationships between examinees' demographic traits and polygraph examination outcomes, though specific statistical results require access to the full paper. [019] (2022)Deception in Police Interrogations
Justice, Crime, and Ethics U.S. courts have consistently upheld police deception as constitutionally permissible under most circumstances, though research shows these tactics contribute to false confessions, particularly among vulnerable… [020] (2022)Research with the use of a polygraph in the investigation of environmental crimes
Вестник Московской академии Следственного комитета Российской Федерации Specific findings cannot be reported as the full text was not accessible for review. [021] (2022)Thoughts on the Inconclusive Zone in Comparison Question Test (CQT)
European Polygraph Inconclusive results indicate CQT method failure to identify the subject's state of mind rather than reflecting actual truthfulness, requiring fundamental reframing of how examiners interpret… [022] (2021 • LANDMARK META-ANALYSIS)A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of the Comparison Question Polygraph Test
Applied Cognitive Psychology The largest meta-analysis ever conducted on the CQT, analyzing 138 datasets. Found a meta-analytic effect size of 0.69 including inconclusives. Motivation level showed a positive… [023] (2021)Fallacies in the estimation of the validity of the Comparison Question Polygraph Test: A reply to Ginton (2020)
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling The authors dismiss Ginton's defenses and conclude his paired-examination validity estimates are untrustworthy due to confirmation bias, criterion contamination, and violated methodological assumptions that inflate… [024] (2021)Hybrid Polygraph and Ocular-Motor Deception Tests for Screening and Specific-Incident Investigations
Psychology Applications & Developments VII The hybrid DLC protocol achieved 88% accuracy for specific-incident testing, while the hybrid MCT protocol achieved 91% accuracy for multi-issue screening, demonstrating that combining eye-tracking… [025] (2021)Differences in Psycho-physiological Responses Depending on Rapport-building During Polygraph Test
THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY Rapport-building during the pre-test interview phase significantly affected psychophysiological response patterns measured by ESS total scores, with interactions between veracity status and rapport condition demonstrating… [026] (2021)Directed Lie – The Correct or the Easy Way?
European Polygraph The study found that 28.6% of directed lie questions failed to provoke physiological reactions during stimulation tests, and three examinees refused to lie as directed,… [027] (2021)From a Rigid Cover to an Elastic One Via a Blanket too Short: An Adaptive Polygraph Approach
European Polygraph The paper advocates for adaptive polygraph approaches that tailor protocols to specific case circumstances and examinee characteristics, similar to personalized medicine, rather than rigid 'one… [028] (2021)Literature Review and Analysis of the Multi-facet Hypothesis and the Evaluation of Independent Target Questions
Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment Grand total scoring achieved 89% accuracy compared to 78% for multi-facet hypothesis scoring—an 11 percentage point difference that challenges the operational utility of assuming independence… [029] (2021)Formation of professional competence in decision-making in non-standard situations of polygraph tests in the training of polygraph examiners (using the example of search tests)
Vestnik of the St. Petersburg University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia The research addresses training methodologies for developing examiner competencies in handling search tests and non-routine polygraph scenarios, contributing to professional education standards for Russian law… [030] (2020)Analysis of Knowledge Graph of Polygraph Research at Home and Abroad Based on CiteSpace
Criminal Justice Science & Governance The study reveals growth in polygraph research output, identification of major research hotspots including CIT and countermeasures, divergent research priorities between Chinese and Western researchers,… [031] (2020)Best Practices in Polygraph Examination
Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment Monte Carlo simulations based on 299 subtotal scores provided the first systematic criterion accuracy estimates and confidence intervals for two-relevant-question multi-issue examinations, confirming that each… [032] (2020)Iacono and Ben-Shakhar's response to Ginton (2020): Validity estimates from paired testing
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling The authors conclude that Ginton's polygraph validity estimates from paired testing cannot be trusted due to unresolved issues with confession contamination, examiner bias, and confirmation… [033] (2020)Electrodermal Responses: When is Bigger Really Better?
Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment: A Journal of Science and Field Practice Performance peaked when electrodermal response amplitudes differed by 10-20%, with a subsequent laboratory analysis finding optimal correlation at 30% minimum difference when scoring against the… [034] (2020)Improving the Quality of Sexual History Disclosure: Emphasis on a Polygraph Examination
PLoS ONE Studied 52 sex offenders, comparing polygraph vs. self-report groups. Polygraph group disclosed more deviant sexual behaviors and paraphilia interests than the comparison group. Confirmed effectiveness… [035] (2020)Deception detection in repeated interviews: The effects of immediate type of questioning on the delayed accounts
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling Differences between truth-tellers and liars were slightly larger when comprehensive 'report everything' instructions were used in the initial interview compared to spatial questioning, suggesting that… [036] (2020)A Discussion of PLC and DLC Question Procedure and Ironic Process Theory
Polygraph The paper introduces Ironic Process Theory to polygraph science, suggesting that the conscious effort to lie when directed paradoxically increases cognitive salience and physiological arousal.… [037] (2020)Critical Changes Over the 100 Year Evolution of Polygraph Practices
European Polygraph The most important changes originated from the 1930 Northwestern crime laboratory and subsequent field research by John Reid and Fred Inbau, transforming polygraphy from rudimentary… [038] (2020)Electrodermal Response Ratios: Scoring Against the Stronger of Two Comparison Questions in Search of an Optimal Minimum Threshold
European Polygraph The optimal minimum difference for scoring electrodermal responses against the stronger of two comparison questions was 30%, with a point-biserial correlation of 0.680 between scores… [039] (2020)Significance of pre-test interview in polygraph examination
Bezbednost, Beograd The study confirmed that issues arose during polygraph examinations when tests were not sufficiently prepared and when pre-test interviews were not given adequate attention, with… [040] (2020)Structural Police Deception in American Police Interrogation: A Closer Look at Minimization and Maximization
Interrogation, Confession, and Truth Minimization and maximization interrogation techniques are inherently deceptive practices integral to the structure of American police interrogation, operating through pragmatic implication to communicate promises of… [041] (2020)RECURRENCE QUANTIFICATION ANALYSIS OF ELECTROOCULOGRAPHY SIGNAL TO A CONTROL QUESTION TEST: A NEW APPROACH FOR THE DETECTION OF DECEPTION
Biomedical Engineering: Applications, Basis and Communications Lmax and DET parameters decreased significantly for relevant questions in vertical EOG signals, while all RQA parameters except RR decreased significantly in horizontal EOG signals,… [042] (2020)Gender-based multimodal deception detection
Multimodal Technologies and Interaction Classification accuracies of 90.1% for mock crime and 74.7% for best friend scenarios were achieved, with perinasal and cheek areas showing the greatest discriminatory power… [043] (2020)A Study on the Differences of Psychophysiological Response of Sexual Crime Victims by Question Conditions in Polygraph Examination
Korea Criminal Intelligence Review Mixing directed lie control questions with standard control questions and using pronouns instead of perpetrator names in relevant questions both produced significant improvements in polygraph… [044] (2019)Current Status of Forensic Lie Detection with the Comparison Question Technique: An Update
Law and Human Behavior Updated review of CQT research, reaffirming conclusions from the NRC (2003). Argued for caution in interpreting CQT accuracy claims, noting potential overestimation in experimental studies.… [045] (2019)Rebuttal: The CQT Has Scientific Support
Various Publications Directly addressed Iacono & Ben-Shakhar (2019) criticisms. Analyzed their arguments point-by-point and found them to lack merit. Corroborated contemporary research reporting high CQT accuracy. [046] (2019)Basic vs. Applied Psychology perspectives lead to different implications from the same data; reevaluating the impact of prior expectations on polygraph outcomes
Social Sciences & Humanities Open Examiner bias impacts only 3% of total polygraph examinations in real-world conditions, occurring only when charts are objectively inconclusive and multiple limiting conditions align. [047] (2019)Validity of the Control Question Test in Two Levels of the Severity of Crimes
Anti-Terrorism; Forensic Science; Psychology in Police Investigations The false positive error rate in severe crimes was approximately double that of minor crimes (23.33% for minor crimes using zero cutoff), indicating innocent suspects… [048] (2019)Polygraph Tests - Benefits and Challenges
Academicus International Scientific Journal Polygraph tests measure heart rate/blood pressure, respiration, and skin responses based on the assumption that dishonest individuals exhibit different autonomic responses than truthful individuals. However,… [049] (2019)How To: A Step-by-Step Worksheet for the Multinomial ESS
Poligrafia The paper provides comprehensive implementation tools including a structured ESS-M Analysis Worksheet, multinomial reference tables for various test formats (3-5 iterations of 2-4 relevant questions),… [050] (2019)Chicago: Where Polygraph Becomes a Science
European Polygraph Chicago became the epicenter for polygraph innovation through the convergence of academic institutions, progressive criminal justice reforms, and pioneering practitioners, with John Reid's development of… [051] (2019)Chicago: Birthplace of Modern Polygraphy
European Polygraph Chicago served as the birthplace of modern polygraphy through the development of standardized examination techniques and professional practices. The city's contributions established the foundational methodologies… [052] (2019)Essentials of the Relevant Issue Gravity (RIG) Strength: A Theoretical Framework for Understanding the Comparison Question Test (CQT)
European Polygraph The RIG framework reframes CQT theory by emphasizing differential attention binding rather than simple threat perception, with the critical task being management of attention diversion… [053] (2019)Defining Deception
Duped The chapter establishes that truth-bias is a universal, adaptive human tendency; that most lies are told by a few prolific liars while most people are… [054] (2019)Verbal Cues Fostering Perceptions of Credibility and Truth/Lie Detection
The Palgrave Handbook of Deceptive Communication Official guidance now emphasizes verbal indices over nonverbal behavior for deception detection. Effective verbal analysis requires interview techniques that maximize verbal output, with the PEACE… [055] (2019)Question Formulation: Irrelevant, Relevant, and Comparison Questions
Effective Interviewing and Interrogation Techniques The chapter establishes that all polygraph techniques utilize four question categories, each serving a distinct purpose. Key principles include ensuring questions are answerable by yes/no,… [056] (2019)The case against the use of polygraph examinations to monitor post-conviction sex offenders
Legal and Criminological Psychology The CQT has no scientific basis for use with sex offenders and suffers from major theoretical and methodological flaws that make it even more problematic… [057] (2018)Believing is Seeing: The Influence of Expectations on Blind Scoring of Polygraph Data
Polygraph and Forensic Credibility Assessment Polygraph scores and decisions were systematically shifted in the direction of biasing information provided to examiners, demonstrating that confirmation bias can penetrate standardized numerical scoring… [058] (2018)Reducing Inconclusive Results: A Descriptive Analysis of Decision Rules, Weighted Electrodermal Scores and Multinomial Cut-Scores
Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment Weighted EDA scores alone reduced inconclusive results by 49%, while combining EDA weighting with multinomial cut-scores achieved a 72% reduction in inconclusive outcomes. [059] (2018)Is a polygraph a reliable lie detector?
Polygraphs provide only 'slight' confidence in truth-telling with no 100% reliable indicator of deception. The Supreme Court found no consensus on polygraph reliability, noting polygraph… [060] (2018)Increase of Lie Detection Accuracy through Integrated Measurement of Pupil Dilation and Polygraph
International Journal of Psychophysiology The integrated measurement of pupil dilation and polygraph increased lie detection accuracy compared to single-modality approaches, though specific accuracy rates were not available in the… [061] (2018)The Polygraph and Lie Detection: A Case Study
Arab Journal of Forensic Sciences & Forensic Medicine Polygraph testing successfully identified deception by the victim who confessed after examination, while all suspects were found truthful. The case demonstrated successful adaptation of sensor… [062] (2018)Credibility Assessment Using Bayesian Credible Intervals: A Replication Study
Polygraph Replicated earlier accuracy findings using Bayesian credible intervals and the ESS-M scoring method. Confirmed high accuracy with event-specific polygraphs using four relevant questions. Demonstrated the… [063] (2018)The Effectiveness of fMRI Data when Combined with Polygraph Data
European Polygraph Combining fMRI data with all three polygraph parameters showed the greatest accuracy increase compared to fMRI alone or partial combinations, with fMRI plus cardiovascular measurements… [064] (2018)Idiosyncrasies in Chart Evaluation
European Polygraph The study found that individual physiological response patterns vary significantly, with EDA contributing 55% of reactions, cardio 26%, and pneumo 19%. The authors argue that… [065] (2018)Setting the Record Concerning the Differences Between the Matte Quadri-Track and the Backster Zone Comparison Techniques
European Polygraph The MQTZCT introduced substantive innovations distinguishing it from Backster's technique, including lower truth cut-off scores (+4 vs. ±5), Fear/Hope of Error questions addressing the Othello… [066] (2018)Current status of forensic lie detection with the comparison question technique: An update of the 2003 National Academy of Sciences report on polygraph testing
Law and Human Behavior Research quality has not improved in the 15 years since the NAS report, and fundamental problems with CQT validation—weak theoretical foundations, poor study quality, and… [067] (2018)UTILIZATION OF POLYGRAPH IN ORDER TO QUALIFY SUBJECTIVE ASPECT OF PERPETRATOR OF A PROHIBITED ACT
Acta Iuris Stetinensis Polygraph examinations are legally permissible in Poland under Article 199a to help assess defendant mental states, though results serve as evidentiary support rather than dispositive… [068] (2017 • FIELD STUDY)Examining Different Types of Comparison Questions in a Field Study of CQT Polygraph Technique
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 14(2), 131–149 Field study comparing different types of comparison questions in real criminal investigations. Provided evidence for the practical effectiveness of both exclusive and non-exclusive comparison questions… [069] (2017)Interpreting non-verbal behaviour during forensic assessment interview test (FAINT) and polygraph techniques
ADVANCE RESEARCH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE Deceptive suspects demonstrated significant variations in non-verbal behavior during both FAINT and polygraph testing, while truthful individuals showed normal indicators/scores. The study supports integrated multi-method… [070] (2017)Manipulation by False Claims
Behavior, Truth and Deception Law enforcement may legally make false claims about physical evidence, witnesses, or polygraph results, but cannot misrepresent suspects' constitutional rights. While courts extend significant latitude… [071] (2017)Multinomial reference distributions for the Empirical Scoring System
Polygraph & Forensic Credibility Assessment The study successfully produced theoretical multinomial reference distributions that showed virtually perfect concordance with Monte Carlo simulations, enabling Bayesian classification that reduced inconclusive results by… [072] (2017)Tuvya Amsel, Practicing Polygraph, best practice guide, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, North Charleston, 2017
European Polygraph The handbook provides practitioner-focused guidance on polygraph best practices, emphasizing individualized approaches, ethical examination procedures, and solutions to common field problems based on extensive professional… [073] (2016)Egy gyanús eltűnés poligráfos vizsgálatának módszertana és tanulságai
Belügyi Szemle Polygraph examination successfully contributed to resolving the disappearance case by providing investigative leads regarding the victim's location and manner of the alleged crime. The study… [074] (2016)DECEPTION DETECTION TECHNIQUES USING POLYGRAPH IN TRIALS: CURRENT STATUS AND SOCIAL SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice The review found that the GKT was more theoretically sound and effective than the CQT, and that juror-eligible individuals varied in their ability to reasonably… [075] (2016)Scientific (Analytic) Theory of Polygraph Testing
APA Magazine The analytic theory provides a unified framework explaining polygraph responses through differential physiological loading rather than specific emotional states, offering a scientifically defensible basis that… [076] (2016)Theoretical basis of pretest interview the survey on a polygraph
Applied psychology and pedagogy The author proposes reconceptualizing the pretest interview as a semi-formalized directional diagnostic interview that functions as the experimental introduction to the polygraph procedure, emphasizing its… [077] (2016)Essentials of Polygraph and Polygraph Testing
The IZCT technique achieved 100% accuracy excluding inconclusives and 90-95% accuracy including inconclusives in field validation studies, with particularly strong performance in identifying both innocent… [078] (2016)Anticlimax Dampening Concept: It Does Exist
European Polygraph The examinee displayed strong reactions only to the knife threat question (R8) despite being deceptive about both the knife incident and ongoing possession of stolen… [079] (2016)The Pre-test interview; the Foundation of Polygraph
The manual elevates pre-test interviewing from an informal preliminary step to a structured, teachable skill set, emphasizing that examination quality begins before sensors are attached… [080] (2016)Polygraph Examinations Contaminating Factors
European Polygraph Multiple psychological contaminating factors can cause innocent examinees to produce inconclusive or false positive results even when standard protocols are followed correctly, with mental contamination… [081] (2016)Which lie detection tools are ready for use in the criminal justice system?
Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition Arousal-based techniques (BAI and CQT) fall short on numerous criteria despite widespread use. Cognitive approaches show more promise: Strategic Use of Evidence and encouraging interviewees… [082] (2016 • ESS EXTENDED ANALYSIS)Extended Analysis with ESS and OSS-3 on USAF-MGQT Examination Data
Polygraph Applied ESS and OSS-3 to USAF examination data. Found ESS component weighting achieved superior diagnostic extraction compared to simpler three-position scoring models. [083] (2016)Deception detection with behavioral, autonomic, and neural measures: conceptual and methodological considerations that warrant modesty
Psychophysiology The review identified significant conceptual clarity issues and methodological problems across deception detection paradigms, particularly challenging the oversold promises of neuroimaging-based lie detection technologies. [084] (2016)Data Analysis
Essentials of Polygraph and Polygraph Testing The chapter synthesizes established data analysis methods emphasizing the shift from subjective assessment to standardized numerical scoring systems, reflecting the field's evolution toward evidence-based practice… [085] (2016)Forensic Polygraph in Crime Investigation: A Case Study
Arab Journal of Forensic Sciences and Forensic Medicine The study demonstrated successful application of IZCT and FAINT protocols in a criminal murder investigation, employing computerized ASIT scoring and coordinating polygraph results with traditional… [086] (2015)A Review of the Polygraph: History, Methodology and Current Status
Crime Psychology Review, 1(1), 59–83 Comprehensive review of both CQT and CIT methods. Analyzed shortcomings and potential of both approaches. Concluded that the CIT appears to be a more promising… [087] (2015)Deception detection.
APA handbook of forensic psychology, Vol. 2: Criminal investigation, adjudication, and sentencing outcomes. Statement Validity Analysis achieves approximately 70% accuracy while SCAN shows no diagnostic value. Verbal cues are more diagnostic than nonverbal behaviors, and cognitive load techniques… [088] (2015 • META-ANALYTIC UPDATE)Updated Meta-Analytic Survey of Validated Polygraph Techniques
Polygraph Extension of the 2011 APA meta-analytic survey with additional validated techniques. Confirmed mean accuracy rates of approximately 89% for event-specific tests and documented ESS/OSS scoring… [089] (2015)Monte Carlo Estimates of the Validity of Polygraph Testing
Various Publications Used Monte Carlo simulation methods to estimate polygraph validity across different conditions. Statistical modeling confirmed high accuracy estimates consistent with empirical findings from field and… [090] (2015)To the 40th anniversary of polygraph application in russia
Herald of the Academy of the Investigative Committee of the russian federation The formal founding of Laboratory No. 30 in 1975 marked the transition from decades of Soviet ideological resistance to institutional commitment to polygraph research. The… [091] (2015 • EXPERIMENTAL)The Comparison Question Polygraph Test: A Contrast of Methods and Scoring
Physiology & Behavior Mock crime experiment with 250 paid participants contrasting probable-lie and directed-lie CQT variants. Found substantial main effects of guilt in both OSS2 computer and human… [092] (2015)Lie detection – of what?
Problemy kryminalistyki Polygraph testing does not directly detect lies but rather measures physiological responses associated with emotions, cognitive effort, and recognition of significant stimuli. The concept of… [093] (2015)Test question construction
Fundamentals of Polygraph Practice The chapter establishes standardized construction rules for six question types, emphasizing that proper question formulation is critical to valid results. Key principles include single-issue focus,… [094] (2015)The Vasomotor Response in the Comparison Question Test
Polygraph Vasomotor responses were found to be highly useful in discriminating deception, with large main effects of guilt detected by both the OSS2 algorithm (η²p =… [095] (2015)Selecting the Most Optimal Conditions for the Polygraph Examination
European Polygraph The authors developed a stress-response model showing that examinees stressed between certain threshold points may become apathetic to external factors including polygraph examination when fatigued. [096] (2015)A Theoretical Analysis of the Directed Lie Question (DLC)
European Polygraph The analysis questions whether the DLC's adoption represents genuine scientific advancement or a problematic simplification driven by political correctness and examiner convenience rather than empirical… [097] (2015)Using the Polygraph Validation Test (PVT) in Solving Conflicted Polygraph Results and Confirming Deliberate Distortions by Examinees
European Polygraph The PVT successfully resolved all 51 cases of conflicted polygraph results and confirmed suspected deliberate distortions, with classic physiological patterns (POT reactions) indicating when examinees… [098] (2015)Specific-issue testing techniques
Fundamentals of Polygraph Practice The chapter describes three validated comparison question techniques for criminal investigation, with event-specific testing demonstrating aggregated accuracy rates near 89-90% and inconclusive rates around 10-11%… [099] (2015)Directed Lie Comparison Questions and Countermeasure Resistance
Various Publications Examined whether directed-lie comparison questions offer better countermeasure resistance. Research suggests that modern testing formats with directed lies may be more robust against deliberate manipulation… [100] (2015)Using conditioning to elicit skin conductance responses to deception
Learning and Motivation Conditioning deceptive responses with mild electric shock significantly increased discriminative skin conductance responses to deception, and this effect occurred regardless of shock probability, demonstrating that… [101] (2015 • 250-PARTICIPANT STUDY)Countermeasure Attempts in the Directed-Lie vs. Probable-Lie CQT
Physiology & Behavior In their 250-participant study, found no differences between DL and PL test types in spontaneous countermeasure attempts, suggesting directed-lie format is not more vulnerable. [102] (2015)Scientific basis for polygraph testing
Polygraph The review demonstrates that modern polygraph practice is based on sophisticated models involving differential salience and signal detection theory rather than older fear-based explanations, establishing… [103] (2015)Psychophysiological detection of deception and Preliminary Process Theory: a comment on Palmatier and Rovner (2015)
International Journal of Psychophysiology The commentary acknowledges common psychophysiological processes underlie CQT and CIT but finds arguments for Preliminary Process Theory unconvincing, calling for demonstrations of effects that differentiate… [104] (2015)Translating theory into practice: Evaluating a cognitive lie detection training workshop.
Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition Training resulted in modest improvements in distinguishing truths from lies and significantly increased the percentage of appropriate questions asked. When detectives successfully implemented the taught… [105] (2015)The protection of innocent suspects: a comment on Palmatier and Rovner (2015)
International Journal of Psychophysiology The commentary argues that CQT and CIT differ fundamentally in how they protect innocent suspects, with this difference representing a critical gap in attempts to… [106] (2015)The polygraph: Current practice and new approaches
In Granhag et al. (Eds.), Detecting Deception The review highlighted ongoing debates about polygraph accuracy and identified the Concealed Information Test as a potentially more scientifically sound alternative to traditional Control Question… [107] (2014)Polygraph testing of 'low risk' offenders arrested for downloading indecent images of children
Sexual Offender Treatment Polygraph testing identified hidden risk factors in 74% of 'low risk' offenders, with 35% showing deception and 35% making previously unknown disclosures, while full computer… [108] (2014)Cognitive and Emotional Reactions to Questions in the Comparison Question Test
Perceptual and Motor Skills Innocent participants did not rate comparison questions as more emotionally concerning than relevant questions when using generic questions, directly challenging the CQT rationale. When participants… [109] (2014)Credibility Assessment: Scientific Research and Applications
Elsevier Academic Press Polygraph test accuracy is estimated at approximately 89% for specific-incident criminal investigations and 85% for screening applications. Electrodermal reactions are the most diagnostic psychophysiological measure,… [110] (2014)False Confessions
Encyclopedia of Deception Polygraph examiners interpret ambiguous charts as indicating deception when told suspects confessed; false claims of polygraph failure have caused documented false confessions; police are legally… [111] (2014)Metodicheskie sredstva sudebno-psikhofiziologicheskoy ekspertizy s primeneniem poligrafa
Yuridicheskaya psikhologiya The paper establishes mandatory certification, minimum three years of examiner experience, minimum five control tests per examination, and standardized protocols for transforming operational polygraph interrogation… [112] (2014)Deception in Police Interrogation
Justice, Crime, and Ethics The authors identified eight types of deceptive interrogation tactics routinely used and judicially accepted, argued that deception in interrogation increases likelihood of deception in testimony,… [113] (2014)Jurors' perceptions and decisions related to polygraph examinations during police interrogation
PsycEXTRA Dataset The study likely found that polygraph evidence significantly influences juror perceptions even when jurors are aware of its limitations, with implications for how confession evidence… [114] (2014)Gender differences in deception behaviour – the role of the counterpart
Applied Economics Letters No gender differences in underreporting were found based on officer gender or gender matching. Both men and women reduced deceptive behavior equally in response to… [115] (2014)Validity of polygraph techniques and decision methods
In Credibility Assessment: Scientific Research and Applications (Eds. Raskin, D.C., Honts, C.R., Kircher, J.C.) The review reports approximately 89% accuracy for specific-incident criminal investigations and 85% for screening applications, with laboratory studies showing 91% accuracy for guilty and 89%… [116] (2013)A Case Study of the Validity of the Arther Examination
Polygraph Among 9 DNA-confirmed innocent suspects, the Arther technique produced a 44.4% false positive rate (4 of 9 errors), with results statistically matching the only prior… [117] (2013)Cognitive load or emotional arousal? The accuracy of indirect methods of deception detection in different lie scenarios
PsycEXTRA Dataset Behavioral indicators of deception varied systematically by lie topic. Six cues (arm/head movements, facial intensity, eye contact, contradictions, pauses) showed main effects for topic type.… [118] (2013)The Connection between Score Threshold, Rate of Inconclusives and Minimum Number of Charts Required for Decision of Truth or Deception
European Polygraph Higher scoring thresholds increase accuracy while maintaining manageable inconclusive rates, with +3 and +1 score thresholds demonstrating equivalent 0.0 error rates. [119] (2013)Testing a Deaf Mute Examinee in Costa Rica
European Polygraph The paper documents practical approaches for adapting polygraph examination procedures to accommodate examinees with hearing and speech disabilities. [120] (2013)The Integrated Zone Comparison Technique: a Field Utility Study in a Deceptive Population
European Polygraph The IZCT achieved 95% overall accuracy including inconclusives and 98% accuracy excluding inconclusives, with zero false negatives, six inconclusive results (4%), and two false positives… [121] (2013)Information gain of the directed lie screening test
Polygraph DLST/ESS provided meaningful information gain (>5%) across nearly all plausible base rates, substantially exceeding the performance of unassisted professional veracity assessment in both security screening… [122] (2013)Współczesne standardy badań poligraficznych
The manual documents validated polygraph techniques with specific accuracy metrics (CIT showing 82.3% accuracy, 81.5% sensitivity, 83.2% specificity), establishes quality control procedures modeled on U.S.… [123] (2013)Employing Polygraph Assessment
The Handbook of Forensic Psychology The CQT has weak theoretical foundations, is biased against innocent examinees, and vulnerability to countermeasures. Field validity studies systematically overestimate accuracy due to confession-verification bias,… [124] (2013)A Case Study of the Validity of the Arther Examination Procedures in a Criminal Case with DNA Confirmation
Polygraph The AEP produced a 44% false positive error rate among DNA-exonerated innocent suspects, with statistical analysis showing these outcomes are almost impossible for a highly… [125] (2013)The effect of cognitive load during deception on eye movements
한국심리학회지: 사회및성격 Liars exhibited shorter saccade duration than truth-tellers across both statement conditions, and showed reduced eye blink frequency specifically during chronological-order recall. However, the high cognitive… [126] (2013)Considering the Legal Applications of Polygraph Test Results
Korean Journal Of Criminology Park concludes that polygraph results should be completely inadmissible in Korean courts, as they lack scientific reliability, violate adversarial principles, and create prejudicial impact outweighing… [127] (2013)Current FBI Polygraph/Interrogation Practices Puts the Actually Innocent at Risk of False Confession
PsycEXTRA Dataset Under FBI polygraph policies, only 17% of actually innocent people avoid interrogation, meaning 83% of the innocent are subjected to interrogation and false confession risk… [128] (2013)Advancing lie detection by inducing cognitive load on liars: A review of relevant theories and techniques guided by lessons from polygraph-based approaches
Frontiers in Psychology Cognitive load-inducing techniques use heightened cognitive load indices rather than physiological arousal as primary deception cues. The proposed taxonomy classifies techniques by cognitive load type… [129] (2013)Promises and Lies: Can Observers Detect Deception
SSRN Electronic Journal Observers achieved 63% accuracy in detecting deception, 12% above chance. While evaluators successfully distinguished promises from empty talk, they failed to identify which promises would… [130] (2012)A non-standard method for estimating the accuracy of lie detection techniques demonstrated on a self-validating set of field polygraph examinations
Psychology, Crime & Law The study found 94% accuracy for detecting guilty examinees and 83.5% for truthful examinees when excluding 20% inconclusive outcomes. When inconclusives were forced to decisions,… [131] (2012)The Empirical Basis for the Use of Directed Lie Comparison Questions in Diagnostic and Screening Polygraphs
APA Magazine The review found little to no meaningful difference in effect size or detection accuracy between directed lie and probable lie comparison questions, supporting the scientific… [132] (2012)Effectiveness of the Integrated Zone Comparison Technique (IZCT) with Various Scoring Systems in a Mock Crime Experiment by Students
European Polygraph The study systematically compared three scoring approaches for the IZCT in a controlled environment where ground truth was known, addressing an important gap in polygraph… [133] (2012)Critique of Meta-Analytic Survey of Criterion Accuracy of Validated Polygraph Techniques
European Polygraph The critique identified significant methodological flaws and biases in the APA meta-analysis, particularly in the evaluation and exclusion of certain zone comparison techniques from validation… [134] (2012)Effect of the Stimulation Test Administered Before and After the First Relevant Chart of the Control Question Test
European Polygraph The research examined how stimulation test timing influences examinee psychological set and physiological response patterns to relevant and comparison questions across multiple chart positions. [135] (2012 • MONTE CARLO)Monte Carlo Study of Criterion Validity for Two-Question Zone Comparison Tests with the ESS
Polygraph Used Monte Carlo simulation methods to establish statistical confidence intervals for ESS scoring across various test formats and decision rules. Provided robust normative data. [136] (2012)Forensic Psychophysiology Using the Polygraph: Scientific Truth Verification, Lie Detection
JAM Publications (Book) This comprehensive synthesis establishes a foundational reference that has become an enduring source within the polygraph profession, addressing both theoretical understanding and practical application. [137] (2012)Using perception shifts to create unanticipated questions and to elicit cues to deception
PsycEXTRA Dataset Liars' verbal responses showed a greater decline in details across three out of four question pairs when comparing anticipated to unanticipated questions, and liars sorted… [138] (2011)Commentary on: Horvath F, Palmatier JJ. Critique of Horvath‐Palmatier Laboratory Study on Effectiveness of Exclusive v. Non‐Exclusive Control Questions in Polygraph Examination. J Forensic Sci 2008;53(4):889–99
Journal of Forensic Sciences Matte raised methodological concerns about cuff pressure settings (40-55 mmHg vs. recommended 90 mmHg), test structure deviations from validated protocols, and implementation of exclusive control… [139] (2011)Psychological Aspects of the Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique and Attendant Benefits of its Inside Track
European Polygraph The Inside Track mechanism theoretically addresses the major cause of false positives and inconclusives by quantifying innocent examinees' fear of error and guilty examinees' hope… [140] (2011)Polygraph Verification Test
European Polygraph The PVT provides examiners with a validated tool for confirming suspicions about test interference when original polygraph results are questionable or conflicted. [141] (2011)Effect of Habituation to Least Threatening Zone Questions on the Most Threatening Zone Comparison Questions in Psychophysiological Veracity Examinations
European Polygraph 62.9% of confirmed deceptive cases showed higher scores in subsequent charts, supporting differential habituation theory where deceptive examinees maintain or increase responsivity to relevant questions… [142] (2011)Analysis of Facial Skin Temperature Changes in Acquaintance Comparison Question Test
European Polygraph The study demonstrated the feasibility of using high-sensitivity thermal cameras to detect facial temperature changes during polygraph testing with precision of less than 0.02°C. [143] (2011)Using the Empirical Scoring System
Polygraph Validation data across 13 dimensions of criterion accuracy from 5,192 scored results of 732 confirmed ZCT examinations demonstrated strong performance by both experienced and inexperienced… [144] (2011)The Use of Physiological Measures to Detect Deception in Juveniles
Polygraph Examined CQT application with juvenile populations. Found that physiological measures can effectively detect deception in younger examinees, expanding the evidence base beyond adult populations. [145] (2011)Criterion validity of the Empirical Scoring System and the Objective Scoring System, version 3 with the USAF Modified General Question Technique
Polygraph Manual ESS achieved 88.2% unweighted accuracy, automated ESS achieved 89.7%, and the OSS-3 computer algorithm reached 90.2% correct decisions, with Pearson correlations between scoring models… [146] (2011)Reliability of the Empirical Scoring System with expert examiners
Polygraph Fleiss kappa of .61 (95% CI: .54–.68) indicated substantial inter-rater agreement on numerical scores, while mean decision agreement reached 95.4% excluding inconclusive results, significantly exceeding… [147] (2011)Poligráf a büntetőeljárásban
Belügyi Szemle Hungarian law limits polygraph testing to the investigative phase with written consent, establishing that results serve to orient investigations and direct further evidence gathering but… [148] (2011 • CROSS-CULTURAL ESS)Empirical Scoring System: A Cross-Cultural Replication and Extension Study
Polygraph International validation with 19 trainees scoring 100 confirmed cases. Achieved mean accuracy of 90.1% (95% CI: 83.8–95.8%), demonstrating ESS validity across cultures. [149] (2011)Criterion Validity of the Empirical Scoring System with experienced examiners: Comparison with the seven-position evidentiary model Using the Federal Zone Comparison Technique
Polygraph No statistically significant differences were found between the ESS and seven-position evidentiary model across 13 dimensions of criterion accuracy when scored by experienced examiners. More… [150] (2011)Thermal analyzer enables improved lie detection in criminal-suspect interrogations
SPIE Newsroom TAD2 successfully transitioned from laboratory development to operational deployment in real criminal cases in Thailand, using remote thermal imaging to monitor periorbital blood flow and… [151] (2011)Personalization and Calibration of the Control Question in the Control Question Test
Journal of Forensic Identification Individualized control question construction tailored to an examinee's specific background, experiences, and psychological characteristics enhances test validity compared to standardized, generic control questions. The study… [152] (2010)A Field Study of the Backster Zone Comparison Technique's Either-Or Rule and Scoring System Versus Two Other Scoring Systems When Relevant Question Elicits Strong Response
European Polygraph The study analyzed the comparative effectiveness of the Backster Either-Or Rule versus the federal scoring system and Matte Quadri-Track system in handling strong relevant question… [153] (2010)The Integrated Zone Comparison Technique and ASIT PolySuite Algorithm: A Field Validity Study
European Polygraph IZCT with ASIT PolySuite achieved 98.73% accuracy excluding inconclusives (92.9% including them), while manual 3-point scoring achieved 98.71% accuracy excluding inconclusives (91.7% including them), demonstrating… [154] (2010)Psychological Set or Differential Salience: A Proposal for Reconciling Theory and Terminology in Polygraph Testing
Polygraph The authors propose replacing 'Psychological Set' with 'Differential Salience' as the theoretical basis of polygraph testing, demonstrating that the new framework accounts for CQT, DLC,… [155] (2010)A Proposal for Reconciling Theory and Terminology in Polygraph Testing
Polygraph Addressed the need for standardized terminology and theoretical consistency across polygraph testing methods. Proposed a unified framework to reconcile competing theoretical models and improve scientific… [156] (2010)Some Thoughts About Feelings: A Study in the Role of Cognition and Emotion in Psychophysiological Detection of Deception
Polygraph Cognitive appraisal of goal-relevant test questions — not fear alone — mediates the range of emotional and physiological responses recorded during PDD testing, with both… [157] (2010)An Assessment of the Backster Either-Or Rule in Polygraph 240 Scoring
Polygraph Application of the Either-Or Rule increased correct decisions from 70% to 80% and reduced inconclusives from 27% to 17%, with all improvements attributable to better… [158] (2010 – 2013)Polygraph Testing in Colombia (Two-Part Study)
Polygraph Documented polygraph testing practices and outcomes in Colombia. Provided international field data on CQT applications outside North America, demonstrating cross-cultural applicability. [159] (2010)Some thoughts about feelings: a study of the role of cognition and emotion in polygraph testing
Polygraph The paper proposes that polygraph-recorded physiological responses arise from two appraisal routes — conceptual/schematic and associative/reinstatement — combined with conditioned emotional responses to lying and… [160] (2010)The Polygraph and the Detection of Deception
Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice The CQT detects deception better than chance but with significant error rates, contrasting sharply with industry claims of 98% accuracy. The CIT demonstrates superior validity… [161] (2010)Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging May Promote Theoretical Understanding of the Polygraph Test
Journal of Forensic Psychology and Psychiatry, 21, 52–65 Explored how fMRI research can advance understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying polygraph responses. Proposed that neuroimaging could provide construct validation for traditional polygraph measures. [162] (2010 • SHORT REPORT)A Test of the ESS with Two-Question Field Cases
Polygraph Validated ESS for two-question test formats. Found accuracy remained robust even with reduced question count, supporting ESS utility for shorter examinations. [163] (2010)Empirical Scoring System: NPC Quick Reference
Inexperienced examiners using ESS achieved mean accuracy of 90.1% (95% CI = 83.8% to 95.8%) with only 3.3% inconclusives, and demonstrated 85% inter-rater agreement, indicating… [164] (2010)Polygraph countermeasures cannot be detected from respiratory signatures: Government policy puts the innocent at risk
Polygraph examiners could not reliably detect countermeasures from respiratory patterns, contradicting policy assumptions and creating significant false positive risks for innocent examinees showing normal stress-related… [165] (2009)The polygraph: The truth lies within
The Journal of Psychiatry & Law The polygraph accurately detects physiological arousal but is often inaccurate in lie detection; reliability estimates range from 81-91%; the examiner's role in administration and interpretation… [166] (2009)A Field Study on the Validity of the Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique
European Polygraph The study provided real-world validation data for the Quadri-Track ZCT technique, representing the third published field research validation of this methodology originally developed in 1977. [167] (2009)When should the Polygraph Stimulation Number Test be Performed?
European Polygraph In 63% of deceptive subjects, reactions to critical questions were greater in the control question test administered after the stimulation test compared to before, challenging… [168] (2009)Influence of case facts on blind scorers of polygraph tests
European Polygraph The study assessed whether contextual information, particularly incriminating evidence like fingerprint matches, biases blind scoring of polygraph quality control reviews. [169] (2009)Relevant Issue Gravity (RIG) strength – a new concept in PDD that reframes the notion of psychological set and the role of attention in CQT polygraph
RIG strength represents the intensity of attention directed toward the relevant issue based on internal cognitive and emotional preoccupation rather than external stimuli, and distributes… [170] (2009 • THEORETICAL)Relevant Issue Gravity (RIG) Strength: A New Concept in PDD
Polygraph Introduced the Relevant Issue Gravity concept, proposing that the psychological weight of relevant questions influences CQT accuracy. Provided a theoretical framework explaining why serious criminal… [171] (2009)Polygraphische Untersuchungen im Strafprozess: Neues zur faktischen Validität und normativen Zulässigkeit des vom Beschuldigten eingeführten Sachverständigenbeweises
Zeitschrift für die gesamte Strafrechtswissenschaft The paper argues that German courts' exclusion of voluntary, defense-initiated polygraph evidence rests on an incomplete reading of the validity literature, and that the shifting… [172] (2009 • HONTS-SCHWEINLE)Information Gain of the CQT Over Interpersonal Deception Detection
Polygraph Used Information Gain analysis to demonstrate CQT provides significant improvement over human deception detection across nearly the complete range of base rates. [173] (2009)Effectiveness of pupil diameter in a probable-lie comparison question test for deception
Legal and Criminal Psychology Pupil diameter demonstrated significant predictive validity for deception (r = 0.61), performed comparably to traditional skin conductance measures, and showed potential as a replacement for… [174] (2009)Comparison of the Objective Scoring System and Probability Analysis
NCJRS (US Government) Both the Objective Scoring System and Probability Analysis demonstrated equivalent accuracy with no significant differences in area under the ROC curve for either Zone Comparison… [175] (2009)Deception: Detection of and Brain Imaging
Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science Brain imaging studies identified consistent neural signatures of deception in prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and parietal regions, with accuracy rates typically under 90%. However, the… [176] (2009)Information gain of psychophysiological detection of deception in forensic and screening settings
Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback Polygraph tests demonstrated substantial improvements in information gain over unassisted laypersons across nearly the complete range of base rates of guilt in forensic settings, based… [177] (2009)Basics of Post-Conviction Sex Offender Polygraph Testing
The Use of the Polygraph in Assessing, Treating and Supervising Sex Offenders: A Practitioner's Guide (Book Chapter) The chapter identifies four distinct PCSOT examination formats (sexual history disclosure, specific issue, maintenance, and monitoring examinations) and establishes their respective clinical functions, arguing that… [178] (2008)The Validity of Polygraph Examination of an Innocent Person and a Perpetrator Administered Several Years after a Murder
European Polygraph The study assessed polygraph validity in a real murder case with examinations conducted years after the crime occurred, comparing results between innocent and guilty subjects. [179] (2008)Test Structure and Administration
European Polygraph The Utah-CQT approach provides some of the highest rates of criterion accuracy and interrater reliability of any polygraph examination protocol when applied in event-specific testing… [180] (2008)Individual Differences in Comparison Question Anxiety
European Polygraph Individual psychological differences significantly affect comparison question anxiety levels, potentially impacting test validity and interpretation. [181] (2008)Public Opinion About the Polygraph
Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law Mock juror studies consistently found that laypeople do not uncritically accept polygraph evidence; participants showed similar guilt judgments regardless of whether defendants passed or failed… [182] (2008 • META-ANALYSIS)A Meta-Analysis of the Comparison Question Polygraph Test: Moderator Effects
In Psychology and Law: Bridging the Gap, 219–237 Reviewed the CQT research literature and found overall accuracy estimates above 85% across studies. Identified important moderator variables including examiner training, question format, and testing… [183] (2008)Effective Policing
Criminal Justice and Behavior The CQT cannot be considered scientifically valid due to weak theoretical foundations, bias against the innocent, and countermeasure vulnerability. Only 30-36% of surveyed scientists consider… [184] (2008)Brute-force comparison: A Monte Carlo study of the Objective Scoring System version 3 (OSS-3) and human polygraph scorers
Polygraph OSS-3 exceeded the decision accuracy of 10 human scorers and 9 out of 10 individual scorers across six accuracy dimensions. The algorithm demonstrated perfect reliability… [185] (2008)Detection of Deception: Cognitive Load
Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law The cognitive load approach is based on the premise that lying is more cognitively demanding than truth telling. By introducing mentally taxing interview techniques such… [186] (2008)Detection of Deception: Use of Evidence in
Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law Late disclosure of evidence produced 61.7% detection accuracy compared to 42.9% for early disclosure. Police trainees trained in SUE achieved 85% accuracy versus 56% for… [187] (2008)Полиграф в практике расследования преступлений (The polygraph in practice in the investigation of crimes)
Book/Monograph The manual establishes comprehensive procedural standards for Russian forensic polygraph practice, detailing three primary testing methodologies, 16 specific investigative applications, and systematic protocols spanning pre-test… [188] (2008)Sex Offender Management Using the Polygraph: A Critical Review
International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 31(5), 423–429 Critical evaluation of PCSOT effectiveness. Acknowledged that PCSOT reliably elicits increased disclosures but questioned whether increased disclosure translates to reduced recidivism. Called the polygraph an… [189] (2008)The Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique: it's just not science. A critique to Mangan, Armitage, and Adams (2008)
Physiology & Behavior The critique identified fundamental methodological flaws including confession-based ground truth creating sampling bias, untested theoretical foundations (psychological set), bias against innocent examinees in scoring rules,… [190] (2008)Effect of two types of control questions and two question formats on the outcomes of polygraph examinations
Journal of Forensic Sciences Nonexclusive control questions achieved significantly higher accuracy rates (85% for guilty, 91% for innocent) compared to exclusive time-bar control questions (χ² = 11.46, p =… [191] (2008)Effective Policing: Understanding How Polygraph Tests Work and Are Used
Criminal Justice and Behavior Examined how polygraph tests function in real law enforcement contexts and their practical effectiveness as investigative tools. Found that polygraph’s primary value may be in… [192] (2008)Scientific status: The case for polygraph tests
In D.L. Faigman, M.J. Saks, J. Sanders, & E. Cheng (Eds.), Modern scientific evidence: The law and science of expert testimony (Vol. 5) Laboratory studies showed approximately 90% mean CQT accuracy, field studies with independent scoring showed 90.5% accuracy, and studies with original examiner scoring showed 97.5% accuracy.… [193] (2008 • USAF STUDY)Effectiveness of the Air Force Modified General Question Test Format
Polygraph Validated the USAF-MGQT format with total accuracy of 83.8% and definitive accuracy of 84.9%. Demonstrated effectiveness of the military’s standard examination format. [194] (2008)Development and validation of the Objective Scoring System version 3
Polygraph OSS-3 achieved 88% average decision accuracy with balanced sensitivity and specificity, with computer algorithms providing perfect interrater reliability compared to human scorers (κ = .58–.61)… [195] (2008)A focused polygraph technique for PCSOT and law enforcement screening programs
Polygraph The authors argue that the DLST, derived from validated TES research (98% accuracy for innocent and 83.3% for guilty examinees in laboratory studies), can serve… [196] (2008 • ESS DEVELOPMENT)An Empirically Based Normative System for Test Data Analysis
Polygraph Introduced the Empirical Scoring System based on normative physiological data. Provided validation across 732 confirmed examinations scored by 140 examiners in 16 cohorts. [197] (2008 • MEIRON ASSESSMENT)An Assessment of the Backster ‘Either-Or’ Rule in Polygraph Scoring
Polygraph Empirically tested Backster’s long-standing “Either-Or” scoring rule. Found the rule did not improve accuracy and recommended against its routine use, updating decades of practice. [198] (2008)Air Force Modified General Question Test Validation Study
Polygraph The AFMGQT produced total and definitive accuracy rates that significantly exceeded chance levels for both truthful and deceptive participants in controlled laboratory conditions, providing empirical… [199] (2008)New measures improve the accuracy of the directed-lie test when detecting deception using a mock crime
Physiology & Behavior New physiological measures improved the accuracy of directed-lie tests when detecting deception in mock crime scenarios. The study addressed previous limitations showing that respiration measures… [200] (2008)Polygraph and Polygraph Techniques
Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law No specific physiological response uniquely identifies deception; all polygraph methods rely on stimulus control and inference. Two major families of techniques exist—knowledge approaches and deception… [201] (2008)Detecting Lies and Deceit: Pitfalls and Opportunities
Interpersonal Communication Most widely-believed deception cues are unreliable, with 75% of examined cues showing no association with deception. Human lie-truth discrimination averages 54% accuracy, while Control Question… [202] (2007)The Comparison Question Test: Does It Work and If So How?
Law and Human Behavior Investigated the theoretical mechanisms underlying CQT effectiveness. Examined the role of comparison questions in calibrating physiological responses. Provided experimental evidence for the psychological processes driving… [203] (2007)Information Does Not Affect the Validity of a Comparison Question Test
Legal and Criminological Psychology Providing examinees with detailed CQT information and countermeasure instructions did not significantly affect test validity; moreover, self-reported countermeasure use was associated with a lower (not… [204] (2007)Psychological structure and theoretical concept of the Backster Zone Comparison Technique and the Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique
Polygraph The paper articulates fundamental principles showing that the examinee's psychological set must be self-directed without examiner influence, and that comparison questions are intentionally designed to… [205] (2007)Polygraph Testing
Beyond Common Sense Field research shows the CQT correctly identifies only 55-57% of innocent suspects, meaning 43-45% are falsely classified as deceptive. Scientific surveys reveal that fewer than… [206] (2007)Psychophysiological Mechanisms in Deception Detection: A Theoretical Overview
Polygraph The paper concluded that polygraph responses are not driven by fear alone but by psychological salience arising from multiple cognitive and emotional processes, proposing a… [207] (2007 – 2011)Development of the Objective Scoring System (OSS) and Empirical Scoring System (ESS)
Polygraph Developed and validated the OSS and ESS computerized scoring methods, resulting in more objective and stable analysis of psychophysiological outcomes. These systems replaced subjective hand-scoring… [208] (2006)Comparison of evidentiary and investigative decision rules: A replication
Polygraph Evidentiary Decision Rules outperformed Investigative Decision Rules on accuracy, inconclusive rate reduction, and error balance, replicating and confirming the findings of the prior Krapohl (2005)… [209] (2006)Polygraph Pilot Study: Final Report
Polygraph offenders had 14 times greater odds of making clinically significant disclosures compared to comparison offenders, with the majority of disclosures occurring during polygraph sessions… [210] (2006)Interrogation using polygraph and its scientific basis
Polygraph Task-oriented memory test theory provides the most parsimonious explanation for differential physiological responses in polygraph testing, better accounting for both Comparison Question Test (CQT) and… [211] (2006 • MOTIVATION STUDY)The Effects of Motivation on the Detection of Deception in CQT
Psychophysiology Examined how participant motivation levels affect CQT accuracy. Found higher motivation produced larger physiological differences between truth and deception, supporting real-world generalizability. [212] (2006)Integrated zone comparison polygraph technique accuracy with scoring algorithms
Physiology & Behavior All three algorithms achieved 100% accuracy when inconclusive results were excluded. When inconclusives were counted as errors, ASIT Poly Suite achieved 90% accuracy while PolyScore… [213] (2006)Lie Detection Assessments as Evidence in Criminal Courts
Law and PsychologyCurrent Legal Issues Volume 9 The chapter concludes that neither the Control Question Test nor Statement Validity Analysis fully satisfy Daubert criteria for routine courtroom admissibility. While both detect deception… [214] (2005)The Impact of Averaging Assigned Scores on Polygraph Decision Accuracy
Polygraph Averaging assigned scores from multiple evaluators prior to the decision stage did not consistently or significantly improve ZCT decision accuracy compared to the traditional individual… [215] (2005)Polygraph Examination of British Sexual Offenders: A Pilot Study on Sexual History Disclosure Testing
Journal of Sexual Aggression, 11(1), 3–23 Early UK pilot demonstrating the feasibility and effectiveness of SHDE polygraph testing with British sexual offenders. Found significant increases in sexual history disclosure, supporting international… [216] (2005)Functional MRI Could Become Lie Detector
Clinical Psychiatry News fMRI and polygraph both accurately identified deceptive responses in all cases. Deception activated 14 brain areas while truth-telling activated only 7, suggesting lying is a… [217] (2005 • EVIDENTIARY RULES)Polygraph Decision Rules for Evidentiary and Paired Testing (Marin Protocol)
Polygraph Established decision rules specifically for evidentiary-quality polygraph examinations, with more conservative cutscores to minimize errors in legal contexts. [218] (2005)Uwagi o rozwiązaniach dotyczących stosowania poligrafu w kodeksie postępowania karnego z 1997 r. (po nowelizacji z 2003 r.)
Przegląd Sądowy The 2003 amendments resolved fundamental legal uncertainties about polygraph admissibility in Polish criminal proceedings. Polygraph examinations function primarily as exculpatory evidence, with expert estimates suggesting… [219] (2005)Effects of prior demonstrations of polygraph accuracy on outcomes of probable-lie and directed-lie polygraph tests
ProQuest Dissertations & Theses The stimulation test with effective feedback increased probable-lie test accuracy to 90% and directed-lie test accuracy to 83%. Probable-lie tests benefited from the demonstration alone,… [220] (2004)Deception Detection in Forensic Contexts
Cambridge University Press The volume documented that intensive recent research had produced substantial new knowledge about cross-cultural deception, simulated amnesia, false confessions, and lie-detection training. Research reviewed suggested… [221] (2004)Effects of outside issues on the control question test
Journal of General Psychology Outside issues had a strong differential impact on innocent participants, dramatically moving their scores toward deception by more than one standard deviation, while guilty participants… [222] (2004)A comparison of polygraph data obtained from individuals involved in mock crimes and actual criminal investigations
Journal of Applied Psychology While laboratory and field examinees exhibited salient differences in electrodermal, cardiovascular, and respiratory response magnitudes, logistic regression classification accuracy did not significantly differ between settings,… [223] (2004)The detection of deception in forensic contexts
Cambridge University Press The volume documents that deception detection research had shifted from merely assessing detection ability toward enhancing performance. Polygraph testing shows approximately 90% accuracy in forensic… [224] (2004)Positions of truthfully answered controls on control question tests with the polygraph
Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science Control questions answered truthfully could effectively differentiate guilty from innocent participants, but only when presented before relevant questions. When relevant questions came first, most participants… [225] (2004)The psychophysiological detection of deception
In: The Detection of Deception in Forensic Contexts (Granhag & Strömwall, Eds.) Research evidence suggested polygraph testing achieves approximately 90% accuracy in forensic settings, representing substantial improvement over unaided human deception detection, though voice stress analysis lacks… [226] (2004)The Closing of the Coffin on Forensic Polygraph Evidence for Australia: Mallard v The Queen [2003] WASCA 296
Psychiatry, Psychology and Law The court concluded that polygraph technique has not been shown to be a reliable method for determining truth or untruth, lacks adequate acceptance within the… [227] (2004)A Comparison of Polygraph Data Evaluation Conventions Used at the University of Utah and the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute
Polygraph All scorers achieved highest accuracy using University of Utah chart evaluation rules regardless of training institution, demonstrating that scoring conventions rather than examiner skill accounted… [228] (2004)The Relationship Between Facial Skin Surface Temperature Reactivity and Traditional Polygraph Measures Used in the Psychophysiological Detection of Deception: A Preliminary Investigation
Polygraph Combined polygraph and thermal imaging achieved 92% accuracy compared to 88% for polygraph alone and 70% for thermal imaging alone, with periorbital and nasal regions… [229] (2004)A prospective study of the impact of polygraphy on high risk behaviours in adult sex offenders
Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment At Time 1, 97% of polygraphed sex offenders disclosed an average of 2.45 high-risk behaviors unknown to supervising probation officers (76 total); at Time 2,… [230] (2003)Prawo i psychologia. Wiarygodność zeznań i materiału dowodowego
The authors conclude that no perfect lie detection test exists and experts make regular errors, though detection methods can perform above chance level and may… [231] (2003)Relative efficacy of the Utah, Backster, and federal scoring rules: A preliminary investigation
Polygraph The Backster scoring system produced larger negative values and an imbalance in conclusive scores compared to Utah and Federal systems, but no meaningful difference in… [232] (2003)The role of the polygraph
In: Matravers, A (Ed.), Sexual offenders in the community: Managing and reducing the risks Seventy-eight percent of participants showed deception indicators on the first polygraph test, and 71% disclosed additional high-risk behaviors on a second test, demonstrating polygraph's utility… [233] (2003)Book Section: Essay and Review: The Polygraph and Lie Detection
The Journal of Psychiatry & Law The NRC concluded that specific-incident polygraph tests perform above chance but well below perfection, with accuracy for security screening insufficient to justify reliance in federal… [234] (2003)The current role of post-conviction sex offender polygraph testing in sex offender treatment
Journal of Child Sexual Abuse PCSOT significantly enhances the ability of treatment teams to promote patient honesty, treatment compliance, and supervision compliance, and the review provides 10 ethical recommendations for… [235] (2003)The Physiological Detection of Deception: Differentiation of True and False Statements Using Semantic Conditioning
PsycEXTRA Dataset The research proposed semantic conditioning as a theoretical approach to create deception-specific physiological responses, though full quantitative results were not published in accessible literature. The… [236] (2003)Review of: Handbook of Polygraph Testing
Journal of Forensic Sciences The review highlighted the Handbook as a significant scholarly contribution to a field with limited academic literature, noting its balanced coverage of theory and practice… [237] (2003)The Concealed Information Test as a Tool for Investigating Hidden Knowledge of Crime-Relevant Information
Journal of Applied Psychology Police interrogators' judgments supported the CQT inference rule that guilty suspects show greater concern about relevant questions while innocent suspects are more concerned about control… [238] (2003 • DECISION RULES)Modified General Question Test Decision Rule Exploration
Polygraph Systematic exploration of decision rules for the MGQT format. Identified optimal cutscores and two-stage decision rules that maximized accuracy while minimizing inconclusive rates. [239] (2003)Is the inference rule of the control question polygraph technique plausible?
Psychology, Crime & Law Police interrogators' judgments supported the CQT inference rule, and field data showed truthful outcomes were more common than critics predicted, suggesting lower false positive rates… [240] (2002)Polygraph Testing Too Flawed for Security Screening
PsycEXTRA Dataset The report concluded that while specific-incident polygraph tests perform above chance, polygraph accuracy for screening is insufficient to justify reliance on it in federal security… [241] (2002)Repeated interrogations: Verbal and non-verbal cues to deception
Applied Cognitive Psychology Liars displayed significantly fewer smiles, self-manipulations, pauses, and less gaze aversion than truth-tellers, with these differences increasing over time. Contrary to conventional wisdom, truthful and… [242] (2002)Does the Confession Criterion in Case Selection Inflate Polygraph Accuracy Estimates?
Forensic Science Communications The study found no statistically significant differences in polygraph detectability between confession-verified and non-confession-verified guilty subjects, indicating that the confession criterion does not inflate polygraph… [243] (2002)Supplement 2002–2012 – Forensic Psychophysiology Using The Polygraph: Scientific Truth Verification – Lie Detection
Choice Reviews Online Field validation studies consolidated in the supplement showed the Quadri-Track ZCT achieved 96.5-100% accuracy with inconclusives reduced from 34.5% to as low as 1.4%, including… [244] (2002)What is the current truth about polygraph lie detection?
Basic and Applied Social Psychology The CQT meets only one of five core validity criteria (coding objectivity). Published evidence does not allow item analysis, the decision model remains unspecified, predictive… [245] (2002)The Effects of Augmented Physiological Feedback on Detection of Deception
Augmented physiological feedback decreased habituation rates and improved discrimination between innocent and guilty participants, with effects persisting across multiple test charts, suggesting feedback manipulation can… [246] (2002)Computerized Polygraph System
Journal of Forensic Sciences The CPS algorithm demonstrated accuracy rates of 95-96% on confirmed truthful cases and 85-95% on deceptive cases in field validation studies, performing comparably to or… [247] (2002 • COUNTERMEASURE DETECTION)Detection of Subjects Employing Directed Countermeasures on the Comparison Question Test
Legal and Criminological Psychology Investigated whether countermeasure use could itself be detected. Found that some countermeasure behaviors produced distinctive physiological patterns detectable by experienced examiners. [248] (2002)Polygraph testing sex offenders
Probation in Europe, Conférence Permanente Européenne de la Probation A single sexual history disclosure polygraph examination increased the mean number of acknowledged victims from 48.1 to 185.6 (a factor of 3.9) and offence episodes… [249] (2002 • MODERN HANDBOOK)Handbook of Polygraph Testing
Book Comprehensive edited volume covering all aspects of modern polygraph science and practice. Included chapters on CQT, CIT, countermeasures, computerized scoring, legal issues, and PCSOT. [250] (2002)A critical review of the control questions test (CQT)
The CQT was found to lack adequate scientific validation, failing to satisfy major Daubert criteria. Key problems included absence of proper theoretical foundation, inadequate control… [251] (2001)The Rank Order Scoring System: Replication and Extension with Field Data
Polygraph ROSS achieved 80.3% accuracy with inconclusives and 91.6% without them in a 300-case field sample, showing no statistically significant difference in accuracy compared to traditional… [252] (2001)New Decision Rule Development: Exploration of a Two-Stage Approach
DoDPI Research Reports The Two-Stage Rule (TSR) successfully reduced the proportion of inconclusive polygraph test results while maintaining classification accuracy equivalent to the Grand Total Rule alone, with… [253] (2001)Comparison of Skin Conductance and Skin Resistance Measures for the Detection of Deception
The research demonstrated that stimulation pretests can contribute to increased polygraph test accuracy. The study also provided comparative data on skin conductance versus skin resistance… [254] (2001 • COUNTERMEASURE REVIEW)Countermeasures and the Polygraph
Book Chapters Comprehensive review chapter covering all known countermeasure methods and their effectiveness. Concluded countermeasures are a serious threat but their practical impact may be limited by… [255] (2001)Psychological Set: Its Origin, Theory and Application
Polygraph The paper documented that psychological set theory proposes examinees focus attention and arousal on question categories perceived as most threatening—relevant questions for deceptive subjects, comparison… [256] (2001)Effects of spontaneous countermeasures used against the comparison question test
Polygraph Spontaneous countermeasures were attempted by 67.7% of participants but did not affect outcomes for guilty examinees while significantly shifting innocent subjects' scores; expert examiners could… [257] (2001)Forensic 'Lie Detection': Procedures Without Scientific Basis
Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice Studies published in top scientific journals indicated that approximately 43% of innocent subjects fail the CQT polygraph test. Surveys of relevant scientific experts found that… [258] (2001)A concise history of the comparison question
Polygraph The comparison question concept predates Reid's 1947 publication, with Walter Summers using 'emotional standards' as early as 1939 and the Marstons experimenting with 'hot questions'… [259] (2000)Guide for Performing the Objective Scoring System
Polygraph Dutton's guide demonstrated that all OSS scoring decisions can be derived entirely from direct physical measurement of three Kircher physiological features, eliminating subjective chart interpretation… [260] (2000)A Field Study of the Integrated Zone Comparison Technique
Polygraph The IZCT achieved near-perfect accuracy in real-world criminal investigations with zero false positives among truthful examinees and only 1.5 errors among approximately 300 deceptive subjects… [261] (2000)A comparison of 3- and 7-position scoring scales with field examinations
Polygraph The 3-position scoring scale demonstrated criterion accuracy significantly greater than chance with no significant differences in test sensitivity to deception compared to the 7-position model… [262] (2000)Comparison of Utah and DoDPI Scoring Accuracy: Equating Veracity Decision Rule, Chart Rule, and Number of Data Channels Used
DoDPI Research Reports When veracity decision rules, chart number, and data channels were equated, DoDPI and Utah scorers showed no significant differences in accuracy; however, the University of… [263] (2000)A Brief Note on the Misleading and the Inaccurate: A Rejoinder to Matte (2000) With Critical Comments on Matte and Reuss (1999)
Polygraph Matte's assertions that reviewing comparison or relevant questions between chart repetitions produces predictable changes in false positive and false negative rates are found to be… [264] (2000)Polygraph Validity in the New Millennium
Polygraph The 7-position scale with +/-6 cutoff achieved highest accuracy with elevated inconclusive rates; accuracy was higher for truthful than deceptive subjects (reversing prior findings); electrodermal… [265] (2000)Psychophysiologische Täterschaftsbeurteilung als Entlastungsmöglichkeit bei Verdacht auf sexuellen Mißbrauch?
Steller concluded that polygraph examinations lack sufficient scientific validity for use in sexual abuse cases, citing the absence of specific physiological lie responses, inadequate construct… [266] (2000)Comparison of computerized polygraph scoring algorithms
Journal of Forensic Sciences All five algorithms demonstrated comparable accuracy (88-91% correct decisions excluding inconclusives) but exhibited false positive rates of 31-46% when inconclusives were treated as errors, with… [267] (2000)How People Deceive
The Language of Deception: A Discourse Analytical Study The typology identifies three main categories of linguistic deception: falsifications and distortions related to propositional content, taking words out of context related to utterance function,… [268] (2000)The frequency of appearance of evaluative criteria in field polygraph charts
Polygraph Electrodermal activity accounted for 55% of all reactions, followed by cardiograph (26%) and pneumograph (19%). Criteria frequency ranged from 5 to 4,793 appearances, with rank… [269] (2000)An exploratory study of traditional and objective scoring systems with MGQT field cases
Polygraph Human scorers demonstrated better sensitivity to deception while the OSS model outperformed human scorers in specificity to truthfulness, revealing that applying cumulative scoring models to… [270] (1999)Update: The scientific status of research on polygraph techniques: The case against polygraph tests
Modern Scientific Evidence: The Law and Science of Expert Testimony Approximately 40–43% of innocent individuals fail the CQT in high-quality real-world field studies, and the only methodologically unbiased field study found CQT accuracy for innocent… [271] (1999)The Control Question Technique: A search for improved decision
Asymmetric cutoff scores partially remedied imbalanced error rates in field CQT examinations, with optimal decision boundaries depending on the relative costs assigned to false positive… [272] (1999 • TECHNIQUE STUDY)The Discussion of Comparison Questions Between List Repetitions Is Associated with Increased Test Accuracy
Polygraph Demonstrated that between-chart discussion of comparison questions significantly improved CQT accuracy. This procedural refinement became standard practice in modern CQT administration. [273] (1999)PolyScore 3.3 and psychophysiological detection of deception examiner rates of accuracy when scoring examinations from actual criminal investigations
Polygraph PolyScore 3.3 achieved 90.9% accuracy on ZCT examinations but lower accuracy on MGQT examinations, while human PDD examiners achieved 82.3% accuracy on MGQT using the… [274] (1999)Manually Scoring Polygraph Charts Utilizing the Seven-Position Numerical Analysis Scale at the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute
Polygraph The documentation identified 22 distinct physiological reaction criteria (12 respiration, 3 electrodermal, 7 cardiovascular) and established hierarchical scoring rules based on the number and quality… [275] (1999 • INTERNATIONAL FIELD)Exclusive or Nonexclusive Comparison Questions: A Comparative Field Study
Polygraph Israeli field study comparing exclusive vs. non-exclusive comparison question formats. Found both formats produced comparable accuracy rates in real criminal investigations. [276] (1999 • NUMERICAL SCORING)The Utah Numerical Scoring System
Polygraph Formalized the Utah-CQT numerical scoring system resulting from 30+ years of scientific research. Provided standardized procedures achieving highest rates of criterion accuracy and inter-rater reliability. [277] (1999 • SPONTANEOUS CM)Spontaneous Countermeasures in Naive Subjects During Polygraph Testing
Polygraph Investigated whether untrained subjects spontaneously employ countermeasure-like behaviors. Found that some naive subjects did make deliberate efforts to alter their responses, but with limited success. [278] (1999)Numerical evaluation of the Army zone comparison test
Polygraph The study detailed the Army ZCT seven-position numerical scoring system (-3 to +3) with standardized criteria for evaluating respiration, electrodermal, cardiovascular, and vasomotor responses, documenting… [279] (1999)Polygraph evidence in federal courts: Should it be admissible?
American Criminal Law Review The article concludes that polygraph evidence fails to meet Daubert reliability standards and creates substantial prejudicial effects that outweigh probative value under Rule 403, arguing… [280] (1999 • SCIENTIFIC STANDARDS)Admissibility of Polygraph Tests: The Application of Scientific Standards Post-Daubert
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law Applied behavioral science concepts of reliability and validity to polygraph admissibility. Argued that accuracy rates are unpredictable and called for mutual language between scientists and… [281] (1999)Polygraph (lie detector) testing: The state of the art
Approximately 43% of innocent subjects fail polygraph examinations, there is no distinctive physiological lie response that polygraphs can detect, and the Comparison Question Test has… [282] (1998)The role of prior expectations in polygraph examiners decisions
Psychology, Crime and Law Prior expectations produced no discernible effect on polygraph test outcomes when examiners conducted complete examinations including pre-test interviews, suggesting that behavioral information from direct examiner-examinee… [283] (1997)The Validity of the Lie Detector: Two Surveys of Scientific Opinion
Journal of Applied Psychology The surveys achieved exceptionally high response rates (91% and 74%) and provided an unbiased assessment of scientific consensus on polygraph validity from relevant experts. [284] (1997)Review of Polygraph Accuracy Research
Various Publications Reported accuracy of polygraph studies as exceeding .90, consistent with findings by Raskin (2002) and Raskin & Podlesny (1979). Helped establish the scientific consensus that… [285] (1997 • APA COMMISSIONED REVIEW)Review of 12 Field Validity Studies of CQT
American Polygraph Association APA-commissioned review of 12 field validity studies conducted since 1980, concluding that CQT accuracy in real-life applications ranged from 92%–98%. This review was later cited… [286] (1997 • EXPERIMENTAL)The Role of Comparison Questions in Physiological Detection of Deception
Psychophysiology Mock crime study with 120 participants examining comparison question mechanisms. Found comparison questions produced different physiological patterns for innocent vs. guilty subjects, providing empirical support… [287] (1997 • FIELD REVIEW)Review of Field Studies of CQT Since 1988
Book Chapters Review of all field studies published since 1988 producing an overall accuracy of 90.5%. Documented consistent improvement in field accuracy with adoption of numerical scoring… [288] (1997 • DEFENSE COMPARISON)A Comparison of PDD Accuracy Rates: CISP vs. TES Question Formats
Polygraph Compared two screening test formats used in US intelligence community. Found both formats achieved significant detection rates, with differences in sensitivity and specificity profiles. [289] (1997)Brief of the Committee of Concerned Social Scientists as Amicus Curiae
United States v. Scheffer The brief reported polygraph accuracy exceeding 90% based on laboratory and field studies, though the Supreme Court ultimately ruled 8-1 that categorical exclusion of polygraph… [290] (1997)Polygraph testimony and juror judgments: A comparison of the guilty knowledge test and the control question test
Journal of Applied Social Psychology No differences were found among conditions for either jury or individual verdicts; jurors rated both CQT and GKT polygraph testimony below other forms of evidence… [291] (1997)Polygraph Testimony and Juror Judgments: CIT vs. CQT Comparison
Journal of Applied Social Psychology Compared juror responses to CIT and CQT polygraph evidence. Found differential juror reactions depending on the type of polygraph test presented, with implications for how… [292] (1997)Survey of Scientists on CIT/GKT Validity
Various Publications Polled 363 scientists from the American Psychological Association and the Society for Psychophysiological Research. Found that the scientific community was more supportive of CIT than… [293] (1997 – 2023)Modern Scientific Evidence: The Case For and Against Polygraph Admissibility
Modern Scientific Evidence (Legal Volume Series) Ongoing point-counterpoint exchanges between leading polygraph researchers, published in a legal reference intended for judges and lawyers. Covers the complete spectrum of admissibility arguments under… [294] (1996)Some elementary distinctions among, and comments concerning, the ‘control’ question ‘test’ (CQT) polygrapher's many problems: A reply to Honts, Kircher and Raskin
International Journal of Psychophysiology Furedy maintained that the CQT should be abandoned on logico-ethical, ethical, methodological, and evidential grounds, arguing that the technique's fundamental problems are obscured by misleading… [295] (1996 • FIELD STUDY)A Field Study of the Validity of the Utah CQT
University of Utah Department of Psychology (NIJ Grant) Large-scale NIJ-funded field study of actual criminal cases. Found overall accuracy exceeding 90% with experienced examiners using numerical scoring. Included 160+ confirmed criminal cases. [296] (1996)Criterion development and validity of the CQT in field application
Journal of General Psychology Original field examiners achieved 96% accuracy and independent blind evaluations achieved 93% accuracy (excluding inconclusives) on CQT decisions in actual criminal cases, with inter-rater reliability… [297] (1996)The Control Question Test in Polygraphic Examinations with Actual Controls for Truth
Perceptual and Motor Skills The modified CQT with truthfully answered control questions correctly identified 86% of guilty subjects and 83–89% of innocent subjects, demonstrating that the test's diagnostic accuracy… [298] (1996)The North American polygraph and psychophysiology: disinterested, uninterested, and interested perspectives
International Journal of Psychophysiology The North American research psychophysiological community has largely failed to meet standards of disinterestedness regarding psychophysiological detection of deception, representing a departure from rigorous scientific… [299] (1995)Response to Cross and Saxe's A critique of the validity of polygraph testing in child sexual abuse cases
Journal of Child Sexual Abuse Williams claimed field polygraph testing demonstrated 98% overall accuracy across 2,174 examinations, though this figure has since been discredited due to methodological flaws including circular… [300] (1995)Polygrapher's dilemma or psychologist's chimaera: a reply to Furedy's logico-ethical considerations for psychophysiological practitioners and researchers
International Journal of Psychophysiology The authors concluded that Furedy's concerns about the CQT were lacking on almost all counts and that his arguments were based on misrepresentations and logical… [301] (1995)A comparison of psychophysiological detection of deception accuracy rates obtained using the counterintelligence scope polygraph and the test for espionage and sabotage question formats
DoDPI Research Reports The study found that traditional CSP format had unacceptably low guilty detection rates of only 43.2% compared to 94.9% innocent detection rates, prompting evaluation of… [302] (1994)Detection of Deception: Polygraph and Integrity Tests
Current Directions in Psychological Science Saxe concludes that polygraph tests do not assess deceptiveness but rather measure fear, with no way to determine the cause of anxiety, making validation impossible.… [303] (1994)Effects of countermeasures on the control-question polygraph test
Journal of Applied Psychology Both mental and physical countermeasures enabled approximately 50% of guilty subjects to defeat the CQT, with strongest effects observed in cardiovascular measures. Countermeasures were difficult… [304] (1994)The effects of prior expectations and outcome knowledge on polygraph examiners' decisions
Journal of Behavioral Decision Making Prior expectations created statistically significant bias in scoring inconclusive polygraph charts, affecting both experienced and inexperienced examiners. However, when physiological evidence clearly contradicted expectations, judgments… [305] (1994)Mental and Physical Countermeasures in CQT Polygraph Testing
Journal of Applied Psychology Landmark study on countermeasures. Found that trained countermeasure use could affect CQT accuracy, but untrained subjects remained highly detectable. One of the most-cited countermeasure studies… [306] (1994 • LANDMARK STUDY)Countermeasures and CQT Accuracy
Journal of Applied Psychology Definitive study on countermeasures in CQT. Found that trained countermeasure users could reduce detection rates, but detection of countermeasure use itself is possible. Untrained subjects… [307] (1993)Validity of an Expanded-Issue (Modified General Question) Polygraph Technique in a Simulated Distributed-Crime-Roles Context
Journal of Applied Psychology The expanded-issue MGQT successfully differentiated guilty participants (thieves and accomplices) from innocent participants at above-chance accuracy levels, while confidants with foreknowledge but no direct criminal… [308] (1993)Usage of polygraphic detection of deception test, in verifying complaints about violence; analysis, and policy recommendations
Unpublished manuscript - Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University Two fundamental CQT assumptions encounter difficulties when testing violence victims, increasing false positive error risk. The paper establishes that polygraphing authentic victims adds psychological suffering… [309] (1993)The Use of Fuzzy Set Classification for Pattern Recognition of the Polygraph
The fuzzy k-nearest neighbor algorithm successfully classified polygraph data using optimized feature combinations from multiple physiological channels, demonstrating that machine learning approaches could extract meaningful… [310] (1993 • INFORMATION STUDY)Effect of Prior Knowledge and Training on CQT Performance
Polygraph Examined whether subjects with prior knowledge of polygraph procedures showed different accuracy rates. Found minimal impact of knowledge alone without countermeasure training. [311] (1993)Multivariate classifiers perform as well as experts in the detection of deception
Statistical multivariate classifiers — including discriminant analysis and a bootstrap approach — achieved accuracy statistically equivalent to expert human evaluators on polygraph CQT data, with… [312] (1993)Effects of two methods of comparing relevant and control questions on the accuracy of psychophysiological detection of deception
DoDPI Research Reports The study found differences between two methods of comparing relevant and control question responses, though specific accuracy outcomes are not detailed in available materials. [313] (1992 • EXPERIMENTAL)Effectiveness of Control Questions Answered ‘Yes’: Dispelling a Polygraph Myth
Forensic Reports, 5, 265–272 Challenged the assumption that “yes” answers to control questions reduce test accuracy. Found no significant accuracy difference between yes and no answers, dispelling a widely… [314] (1992)Bootstrap Decision Making for Polygraph Examinations,
Bootstrap resampling outperformed both human numerical evaluation and discriminant analysis in absolute terms. However, the expert human scorers likely overestimated typical field examiner accuracy, making… [315] (1992)The effects of polygraphy and eyewitness testimony on the beliefs and decisions of mock jurors
Imagination, Cognition, and Personality Eyewitness testimony significantly increased guilty verdicts and beliefs in defendant guilt, while polygraph expert testimony had no significant effect on mock juror decisions at either… [316] (1992)Analysis of federal polygraph charts by spot and chart total
Polygraph Examiners achieved 82.0% overall accuracy in blind chart reviews, with significantly higher accuracy for deceptive cases (89.3%) compared to truthful cases (72.2%), revealing important asymmetries… [317] (1992)Electrodermal differentiation of deception: potentially confounding and influencing factors
International Journal of Psychophysiology Voice latency and skin conductance both increased for difficult biographical questions, but only skin conductance showed the deceptive > honest differentiation effect, providing evidence that… [318] (1992)Numerical scoring of polygraph charts: What examiners really do
Polygraph Examiners achieved 82% overall accuracy (361/440 decisions) in blind chart review, with 72.2% accuracy for truthful cases and 89.3% for deceptive cases. Respiratory suppression was… [319] (1991)The Directed Lie Control Question
Polygraph Directed-lie and probable-lie methods showed no significant differences in accuracy across validation studies, while the directed-lie approach offered improved standardization and reduced examiner-to-examiner variability. The… [320] (1991)Why (some) Americans believe in the lie detector while others believe in the guilty knowledge test
Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science Lykken argues that real-world CQT accuracy is barely above chance, sustained by confirmation bias and the exam's confession-eliciting function, while the GKT offers a theoretically… [321] (1991)An ERP-based, control-question lie detector analog: Algorithms for discriminating effects within individuals' average waveforms
Psychophysiology Experiment 1 achieved 92.3% accuracy for guilty subjects and 86.7% for innocent subjects. However, a 7-14 day delay without additional rehearsal reduced guilty detection to… [322] (1991)Science and CQT polygraph tests: A theoretical critique
International Journal of Psychophysiology The CQT lacks construct validity because it assesses fear rather than deception, making proper validation impossible. While the test may achieve better-than-chance accuracy when subjects… [323] (1991)Science, Lies, and Controversy: An Epitaph for the Lie Detector
American Psychological Association (Address) Polygraph accuracy in real-world applications is little better than chance, with at least half of truthful subjects erroneously classified as deceptive. The technique is biased… [324] (1991)Validity of the control question polygraph test: The problem of sampling bias
Journal of Applied Psychology The study found 55% accuracy for innocent subjects but could not establish a valid accuracy estimate for guilty subjects due to near-total dependence on confessions… [325] (1991)A comparison of field and laboratory polygraphs in the detection of deception
Psychophysiology Overall hit rates were essentially the same for laboratory polygraph quantitative measures (73%) and field polygraph numerical scores (79%), with electrodermal activity and respiration suppression… [326] (1991)Science and the CQT polygraph: A theoretical critique
Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science The CQT lacks construct validity and does not assess deceptiveness but rather measures fear and anxiety. Validation is impossible because the source of physiological arousal… [327] (1991)Clinical judgment and decision-making in CQT-polygraphy: A comparison with other pseudoscientific applications in psychology
Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science The CQT decision process is vulnerable to confirmation bias because examiners start with preconceived hypotheses and the lack of well-defined quantification rules allows them to… [328] (1991)Another Critical Assault on Lie Detection
Contemporary Psychology: A Journal of Reviews Iacono's review reinforced critical perspectives on polygraph validity and contributed to academic discourse questioning the scientific foundations of the Comparison Question Test, building on work… [329] (1991)The forensic use of the polygraph: A psychophysiological analysis of current trends and future prospects
Advances in Psychophysiology (Vol. 4) The Control Question Technique (CQT) is found to lack construct validity as a measure of deception, because it indexes differential anxiety and fear responses rather… [330] (1990)Heart rate as an index of psychophysiological detection of deception in the guilty person paradigm using the paired control question technique in a field population
Japanese Journal of Physiological Psychology and Psychophysiology Tonic (baseline) heart rate was significantly elevated in deceptive versus truthful examinees, providing effective discrimination. Phasic heart rate changes to relevant questions showed no apparent… [331] (1990)Theories and applications in the detection of deception: A psychophysiological and international perspective
Book The authors developed a cognitive theoretical framework for understanding psychophysiological deception detection that would profoundly influence subsequent polygraph research and policy debates for decades. [332] (1990)History and Description
Theories and Applications in the Detection of Deception The chapter documents the evolution of polygraph instrumentation and identifies six major problems with the Control Question Test, establishing a critical framework that distinguished scientifically… [333] (1990)Reliability and Validity of Polygraph-Based Classification
Theories and Applications in the Detection of Deception Across 10 GKT laboratory experiments, 84% of guilty examinees and 94% of innocent examinees were correctly classified, with accuracy rates highest when tests included more… [334] (1990)A Critical Comparison of the Major Methods of Polygraph Interrogation
Theories and Applications in the Detection of Deception The GKT/CIT relies on solid scientific principles and incorporates proper control questions with standardized procedures, while the CQT suffers from questionable scientific status, lack of… [335] (1990)Theories and Applications in the Detection of Deception
Springer-Verlag The book establishes that the CQT lacks the scientific foundation necessary for valid testing due to non-equivalent comparison questions, while the GKT offers a scientifically… [336] (1989)Psychopathy, threat, and polygraph test accuracy
Journal of Applied Psychology Psychopathy did not confer any advantage in defeating the CQT — guilty psychopaths were detected just as easily as guilty non-psychopaths at 87% accuracy —… [337] (1989 • LABORATORY/FIELD)Recent Laboratory and Field Research on Polygraph Techniques
Book Chapters Comprehensive review describing DLT laboratory and field research showing it is at least as accurate as the CQT with fewer false positive errors, simpler to… [338] (1989)The polygraph test: Lies, truth and science
Biological Psychology The CQT polygraph lacks construct validity, measuring fear of detection rather than deceptiveness itself; the technique fails to meet basic psychophysiological scientific standards including proper… [339] (1989)Knowledge, probability, and credibility
Journal of Behavioral Decision Making Credibility is multi-dimensional (sensitivity, objectivity, veracity) and evidence evaluation requires cascaded inference through multiple uncertainty stages. Applying Bayes' rule to this structure provides a systematic… [340] (1989)The admissibility of evidence derived from hypnosis and polygraphy
In D.C. Raskin (Ed.), Psychological methods in criminal investigation and evidence Forty states had determined hypnotically refreshed testimony inadmissible, with 26 states adopting per se or variant exclusionary rules. For polygraph evidence, two states deemed it… [341] (1989)The validity of detection of deception for multiple issues
Guilty subjects were identified as deceptive to at least one crime 67% of the time (93% excluding inconclusives), but the study revealed examiners could not… [342] (1989)The Complete Polygraph Handbook
The handbook presented field accuracy estimates of approximately 98% and laboratory accuracy of 83% based on literature reviews, while providing comprehensive coverage of all validated… [343] (1988)Meta-Analysis of the Comparison Question Test
Unpublished manuscript / Later in Raskin (1989) The first meta-analysis of the CQT. Found significant moderator effects for subject type, incentives, and decision policy. All three variables predicted accuracy but showed high… [344] (1988)Assessing deception: Polygraph techniques
In R. Rogers (Ed.), Clinical assessment of malingering and deception The authors concluded that polygraph techniques, particularly the widely-used Control Question Test, lack sound theoretical foundations, are vulnerable to countermeasures, and cannot provide reliable error… [345] (1988 • FIELD STUDY)A Field Study of the Validity of the Directed Lie Control Question
Journal of Police Science and Administration First field validation of the directed-lie comparison question format. Results showed DLC was at least as accurate as the probable-lie CQT with fewer false positive… [346] (1988 • COMPUTERIZED SCORING)Human Versus Computerized Evaluations of Polygraph Data in a Laboratory Setting
Journal of Applied Psychology Compared human examiner scoring with computerized analysis. Found computerized evaluations achieved accuracy of at least 90%, equaling or exceeding human scorers. Demonstrated feasibility of automated… [347] (1988 • LANDMARK FIELD STUDY)A Study of the Validity of Polygraph Examinations in Criminal Investigation
National Institute of Justice, Grant No. 85-IJ-CX-0040 Major NIJ-funded field study demonstrating that CQT accuracy exceeded 90% when properly employed by skilled examiners. Established benchmark for forensic polygraph validity in actual criminal… [348] (1988 • META-ANALYSIS)Meta-Analysis of Mock Crime Studies of the Control Question Polygraph Technique
Law and Human Behavior Early meta-analysis of 14 CQT laboratory studies. Found significant moderator effects including student vs. community participants and motivation levels. Accuracy exceeded 85% across studies. [349] (1988 • RESEARCH)Patterns of Activation and Deception
Psychophysiology Examined physiological activation patterns during deceptive vs. truthful responding. Found distinct activation patterns across respiratory, cardiovascular, and electrodermal channels that differentiate truth from deception. [350] (1988)Validity of the Lie Detector: A Psychophysiological Perspective
Criminal Justice and Behavior Provided a psychophysiological perspective on polygraph validity. Examined construct and criterion validity from a basic science standpoint. Influenced subsequent research on the theoretical foundations of… [351] (1988 • CROSS-VALIDATION)Replication and Cross-Validation of Utah Mock Crime Study
University of Utah (Grant Report) Cross-validation study confirming earlier findings. Demonstrated replicability of CQT accuracy across multiple independent experiments with different examiners and participant pools. [352] (1988)Effects of spontaneous countermeasures on the physiological detection of deception
Journal of Police Science and Administration Sixty percent of guilty subjects spontaneously attempted countermeasures (primarily relaxation and breathing control), but these untrained tactics had no effect on test outcomes, with evaluators… [353] (1988)Does science support polygraph testing?
The Polygraph test: Lies, truth and science Raskin presented field evidence showing CQT accuracy could exceed 90% with skilled examiners, with 100% accuracy on guilty subjects and 92% on innocent subjects in… [354] (1987)Machiavellianism and CIT Accuracy
Psychophysiology Found that subjects high in Machiavellianism showed different response patterns during CIT. Demonstrated that personality characteristics can influence detection accuracy, informing examination interpretation. [355] (1987 • FIELD STUDY)Polygraph Field Test Accuracy of CQT in Criminal Cases
Law and Human Behavior Field validation using confirmed criminal case outcomes. Achieved accuracy rates above 90% for both truthful and deceptive classifications, consistent with laboratory findings. [356] (1987 • ANALOG STUDY)Directed Lie Comparison Questions in Polygraph Testing
Psychophysiology Laboratory comparison of directed lie vs. probable lie formats. Found DLC produced fewer false positives while maintaining detection of deception, supporting its adoption as standard… [357] (1987)A Cognitive Model for Exposition of Human Deception and Counterdeception
The CDM provided a systematic hierarchical organization of deception principles grounded in cognitive psychology, demonstrating how cognitive limitations in targets create exploitable vulnerabilities and establishing… [358] (1987)The Horizontal Scoring System
Polygraph The rank-order method showed accuracy rates of 90-93% in subsequent validation studies, though it was limited to single-issue testing situations and some diagnostic criteria lacked… [359] (1987)Interpreting research on countermeasures and the physiological detection of deception
Journal of Police Science and Administration Test format determines optimal countermeasure strategy: Concealed Information Tests require hyperresponsivity/hyporesponsivity strategies while Control Question Tests require selective augmentation of responses. The framework explains apparently… [360] (1987)What psychologists should know about lie detection
PsycEXTRA Dataset Field and laboratory studies of the Control Question Test produced mixed and inconclusive results, with some studies finding it accurate and others showing it was… [361] (1986)Selective Attention Induced by Relevant Items Modeling CQT Effect
Unpublished research - Tel-Aviv University and Israel Police The research demonstrated that selective attention processes could model CQT effects, with relevant items inducing attention patterns that differ between truth-tellers and deceivers. This finding… [362] (1986)Trial by polygraph: Scientific and juridical issues in lie detection
Behavioral Science and the Law Only the GKT is argued to be well grounded in psychological theory, while CQT validity research is characterized as frequently contaminated by methodological flaws; the… [363] (1986)Lie detection as psychophysiological differentiation: Some fine lines
In M.G.H. Coles, E. Donchin, & S.W. Porges (Eds.), Psychophysiology of the cardiovascular system The CQT fails to meet psychophysiological differentiation standards because its control questions do not isolate the deception process and confound multiple psychological factors. Furedy argued… [364] (1986 • SCIENTIFIC STATUS)The Scientific Status of Research on Polygraph Techniques: The Case for Polygraph Tests
In Faigman et al. (Eds.), Modern Scientific Evidence Major chapter presenting the scientific case for polygraph validity. Reviewed controlled studies showing accuracy above 90% and argued polygraph meets evidentiary standards. [365] (1985)In my opinion ... Credulous vs. Critical Police Use of the Polygraph in Criminal lnvestigations
Canadian Journal of Criminology Furedy argued that police 'credulous' use of polygraphs—treating them as definitive lie detectors—contradicted scientific evidence showing CQT polygraphs lack construct validity and cannot distinguish deception… [366] (1985)Testing the Polygraph
PsycEXTRA Dataset The review identified fundamental problems with polygraph validity, finding that while claimed to be highly accurate, the evidence was unclear particularly for screening applications. Control… [367] (1985 • MILITARY FIELD STUDY)A Validation and Reliability Study of Counterintelligence Screening Tests
Security Support Battalion, 902nd Military Intelligence Group, Fort Meade, MD US military study of polygraph screening test validity. Found significantly better than chance detection rates for counterintelligence screening, though with higher inconclusive rates than specific-issue… [368] (1985 • ESTIMATION METHOD)A Method of Estimating the Accuracy of Individual Control Question Polygraph Tests
Proceedings of IDENTA, 1985, 142–147 Proposed an innovative method for estimating individual test accuracy from physiological response magnitudes. Laid groundwork for confidence-based polygraph decision reporting. [369] (1985 • FIELD STUDY)Psychopathy and Polygraph Detection of Deception in a Prison Population
Psychophysiology Tested 48 inmates (half high psychopathy). Overall 88% accurate, 4% wrong, 8% inconclusive. No significant differences between psychopaths and nonpsychopaths, suggesting CQT works equally for… [370] (1985)The Use of Countermeasures: Categorical Decisions Based on Three Interpretations
Psychophysiology Early countermeasure study showing that physical countermeasures could be trained in laboratory settings. Provided the first systematic data on countermeasure effectiveness that would influence decades… [371] (1985 • FOUNDATIONAL)The Effects of Physical Countermeasures on the Physiological Detection of Deception
Journal of Applied Psychology First systematic countermeasure study. Trained subjects used physical countermeasures (tongue biting, toe pressing) during control questions. Approximately 50% of trained subjects defeated the test. [372] (1985)Comparison of Relevant/Irrelevant and Modified General Question Technique Structures in a Split Counterintelligence-Suitability Phase Polygraph Examination
Polygraph The R/I and MGQT techniques differed significantly in the types of examiner decisions rendered and the nature of security-relevant information obtained, demonstrating that question format… [373] (1985)Effects of differing numerical chart evaluation systems on polygraph examination results
Polygraph The three systems differed substantially in complexity of rules, scale granularity (3-position vs. 7-position scales), comparison question pairing strategies, and emphasis on specific physiological features… [374] (1984)The effect of propranolol on polygraphic detection of deception
Unpublished manuscript Propranolol administration resulted in a 32.2% inconclusive rate during polygraph examinations, primarily by reducing the physiological differentiation between control and relevant questions rather than producing… [375] (1984)Trial by polygraph
Behavioral Sciences & the Law Lykken documented that the Control Question Technique lacked adequate scientific validity for forensic use, with evidence suggesting high false positive rates potentially approaching 50%. The… [376] (1984)Lie detector lies
Nature The Bayesian analysis revealed that conventional polygraph accuracy statistics are misleading when base rates are not considered, showing that screening applications in low-prevalence populations will… [377] (1984)On the fallibility of lie detection
American Psychologist The paper concluded that lying does not produce a measurable physiological response, that empirical evidence showed high false positive rates (50% in laboratory studies), and… [378] (1984)Alcohol and the psychophysiological detection of deception
Psychophysiology Alcohol intoxication during the mock crime (encoding phase) significantly reduced detection accuracy on both Control Question Test and Guilty Knowledge Test protocols, whereas alcohol intoxication… [379] (1984)Detecting Deception in 1984
American Behavioral Scientist Lykken concluded that polygraph tests are wrong one-third of the time overall, biased against innocent and conscientious persons, can be beaten by sophisticated liars, and… [380] (1983)Detection of deception: Effectiveness of physical countermeasures under high motivation conditions
Psychophysiology With enhanced training, countermeasure subjects produced 47% false negative outcomes compared to 0% for guilty controls, demonstrating that simple physical countermeasures could effectively defeat the… [381] (1983 • CONGRESSIONAL REVIEW)Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation
Government & Policy Documents Systematic review for Congress. Analyzed 10 field studies and 14 analog studies using the CQT. Found laboratory studies had an average unweighted accuracy of .83… [382] (1983)Predictors of liar/nonliar status: Birth order, age, reason for polygraph investigation, and previous arrest
Journal of Police Science & Administration Full text unavailable; specific findings cannot be reported without access to the original paper. [383] (1983)Selection of Two Most Productive 'You-Phase' Charts. Revision of the Backster Zone Comparison Test Numerical Cutoff table
The 1983 revision established updated protocols for selecting the two most productive You-Phase charts and refined numerical cutoff thresholds, with scores of +5 or -9… [384] (IDENTIFIED BY OTA (1983) • 10 KEY FIELD STUDIES)OTA-Qualifying Field Studies of CQT Validity
Various journals (1960s–1980s) The 10 field studies identified by the Office of Technology Assessment as meeting minimum scientific standards. Together, they showed: false positive rates ranging from 0–75%… [385] (1983)The detection of physical countermeasures
Polygraph Polygraph examiners detected only 12% of participants using physical countermeasures, with trained countermeasures proving difficult to detect through either physiological chart analysis or behavioral observation. [386] (1983)The scientific validity of polygraph testing
Office of Technology Assessment Report Field studies showed average guilty detection of 86.3% but innocent detection of only 76%, with false positive rates averaging 19.1%. No scientific validity was established… [387] (1982)Cross-validation of a computerized diagnostic procedure for detection of deception
Psychophysiology Computerized discriminant analysis achieved accuracy rates equivalent to experienced human evaluators in classifying guilty and innocent subjects, with successful cross-validation demonstrating generalizability across independent samples. [388] (1982)Field Validity Study of CQT
Journal of Applied Psychology One of ten field studies meeting OTA minimum scientific standards. Provided accuracy data from real criminal investigations that contributed to the overall evidence base for… [389] (1982)An evaluation of polygraphers' judgments: A review from a decision theoretic perspective
Journal of Applied Psychology Polygraphers systematically weighted detection of guilty suspects far more heavily than protection of innocent examinees, and formal decision-theoretic analysis showed the CQT is unlikely to… [390] (1982 • MOCK CRIME/FIELD)A Method for Evaluating the Use of the Polygraph in a Real-Life Situation
Journal of Applied Psychology Innovative Israeli study using real crime scenario with unknown ground truth to evaluate polygraph accuracy. Demonstrated CQT effectiveness in a naturalistic military context. [391] (1982 • MOCK CRIME)CQT Lab Accuracy with Community Participants
Journal of Applied Psychology Used community rather than student volunteers for increased ecological validity. Found accuracy rates comparable to field studies, supporting generalizability of lab results. [392] (1982)Analiza przesłanek diagnozowania w badaniach poligraficznych
The monograph articulated the theoretical constructs and diagnostic premises that enable polygraph testing to achieve validity as a forensic tool, clarifying the logical structure of… [393] (1982)The effects of multiple physical countermeasures on the detection of deception
Psychophysiology Enhanced countermeasure training enabled 47% of guilty subjects to produce false negative outcomes by augmenting physiological responses to control questions, with cardiovascular measures most affected… [394] (1981)Statistical versus clinical lie detection
American Psychologist Clinical interpretation achieved 71% detection of guilty subjects but misclassified 50% of innocent participants as deceptive, while statistical analysis achieved 80% overall accuracy, suggesting examiners… [395] (1981)Extraversion and the detection of deception
Personality and Individual Differences Extraverts demonstrated selective physiological responding to crime-relevant questions and were more accurately detected, while introverts showed diffuse responding to both critical and non-critical questions that… [396] (1981)Wprowadzenie do problematyki badań poligraficznych
The work systematically documented polygraph theory, methodology, and practice as of 1981, establishing methodological standards based primarily on Reid techniques and emerging numerical scoring systems,… [397] (1981)Accuracy demonstrations, threat, and the detection of deception: Cardiovascular, electrodermal, and pupillary measures
Psychophysiology Detection accuracy on the Control Question Test increased systematically with demonstrated polygraph effectiveness (dose-response relationship), while the Concealed Information Test showed weaker effects from the… [398] (1981)Physiological detection of deception: Measurement of responses to questions and answers during countermeasure maneuvers
Psychophysiology Professional actors' mental countermeasures proved completely ineffective, with 100% of guilty subjects correctly detected and no false negatives. However, innocent subjects experienced false positive rates… [399] (1981)Cognitive, Social, and Personality Processes in the Physiological Detection of Deception
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Polygraph detectability is shaped by multiple independent factors — including attentional processing, prior feedback, personality (socialization, electrodermal lability), birth order, and examiner-subject ethnicity — and… [400] (1981)Computerized chart evaluation in the detection of deception
The computerized algorithm achieved classification accuracy comparable to expert human examiners, with skin conductance amplitude emerging as the most diagnostic measure and multivariate discriminant analysis… [401] (1981 • CLASSIC TEXT)A Tremor in the Blood: Uses and Abuses of the Lie Detector
Book Influential book presenting a comprehensive scientific critique of CQT polygraphy while advocating for the Guilty Knowledge Test. Became the most-cited critical analysis of polygraph practice. [402] (1981)A Validation and Reliability Study of the Counterintelligence Screening Test
902nd Military Intelligence Group The study provided the first scientific validation of directed lie control questions and the CIST format under controlled conditions. [403] (1980)The responding of normals, alcoholics, and psychopaths in a laboratory lie detection experiment
Dissertation Abstracts International No differences in detectability of deception were found among normal individuals, alcoholics, and psychopaths, challenging assumptions that psychopaths could evade polygraph detection. [404] (1980)Amnesia: Its detection by psychophysiological measures
Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Personality-disordered patients were found deceptive at a rate of 63%, nearly five times the rate observed in patients with no major psychiatric illness, and shorter… [405] (1979)Standardized Polygraph Notepack and Technique Guide
The Backster Zone Comparison Technique introduced the first numerical scoring system for polygraph chart interpretation and achieved mean criterion accuracy of .86 in subsequent validation… [406] (1979)Orienting and defensive reflexes in the detection of deception
The Orienting Reflex in Humans Skin conductance and vasoconstriction were the most effective physiological indicators. Polygraph responses were explained through orienting reflex mechanisms involving differential attention and information processing to… [407] (1979)Accuracy of Polygraph Techniques
Various Publications Reported polygraph accuracy exceeding .90 using the CQT format. This early quantification helped establish the scientific foundation for modern polygraph testing standards. [408] (1979 • EXPERIMENTAL)Validity of CQT in Laboratory Mock Crime Study
Psychophysiology One of the Utah group’s foundational mock crime experiments with 72 volunteers. Established the Federal Zone of Comparison technique validity using numerical scoring, with accuracy… [409] (1979)The detection of deception
Psychological Bulletin Lykken concluded that the CQT lacks construct validity because it assesses fear rather than deception and fails to create true experimental controls between relevant and… [410] (1979)Die Leistungsfähigkeit der heutigen Methoden der psychophysiologischen Täterschaftsermittlung
Monatsschrift für Kriminologie und Strafrechtsreform Undeutsch reported that contemporary polygraph literature showed accuracy rates of 70-90% and emphasized the need for conceptual precision in distinguishing perpetrator identification from other assessment… [411] (1979 • FOUNDATIONAL)CQT Mock Crime Laboratory Study
Psychophysiology One of the earliest CQT mock crime studies from the Utah group. 72 student volunteers randomly assigned to guilty/innocent conditions with financial motivation bonus. [412] (1979)Effects of information and practice on detection of deception
Psychophysiology Detection accuracy remained robust across all experimental conditions, with detailed information about the CQT and practice having minimal impact on the ability to differentiate guilty… [413] (1979)Truth and Deception: A Reply to Lykken
Psychological Bulletin Raskin and Podlesny asserted that the CQT achieves approximately 90% accuracy in real-world applications when properly administered by skilled examiners, with errors tending toward false… [414] (1979)Effects of Level of Socialization on Electrodermal Detection of Deception
Psychophysiology Deceptive subjects who evaded polygraph detection scored significantly lower on the CPI Socialization scale (r = .45, p < .05), with the effect mediated by… [415] (1979 • THEORETICAL CRITIQUE)Detecting Deception: The Polygraph Technique
In Prokasy & Raskin (Eds.), Electrodermal Activity in Psychological Research Lykken’s detailed theoretical critique arguing the CQT lacks a valid scientific foundation while the GKT/CIT has strong theoretical support from orienting response research. [416] (1978)The Psychopath and the Lie Detector
Psychophysiology Lykken concluded that Raskin and Hare's mock crime experiment lacked the real-world motivational stakes necessary to genuinely test the CQT's theoretical mechanisms, and that their… [417] (1978)An Experimental Investigation of the Relative Validity and Utility of the Polygraph Technique and Three Other Common Methods of Criminal Identification
Journal of Forensic Sciences Polygraph testing achieved the highest accuracy with 18 of 20 correct decisions (90%), 1 incorrect decision (5%), and 1 inconclusive (5%), outperforming eyewitness identification, fingerprints,… [418] (1978)Effects of Physiological Variables on the Detection of Deception
Psychosomatic Medicine The research demonstrated that electrodermal measures provided superior deception detection compared to cardiovascular and pupillary responses, and that accuracy demonstrations and threat manipulations significantly enhanced… [419] (1978)Validity and Reliability of Detection of Deception
U.S. Government Report Polygraph examinations using control-question or guilty-knowledge tests achieved approximately 90% overall accuracy when properly conducted and numerically scored; examiners employing numerical scoring reached 99% accuracy… [420] (1978 • FOUNDATIONAL LAB)Physiological Detection of Deception: A New Approach
Journal of Applied Psychology Early Utah lab study establishing core mock-crime methodology. Achieved significant discrimination between guilty and innocent groups using physiological measures, validating the basic paradigm. [421] (1978)Psychopathy and detection of deception in a prison population
Psychophysiology 100% of guilty subjects (both psychopaths and nonpsychopaths) were correctly identified using the CQT, with 91% accuracy for innocent subjects. Psychopaths showed equivalent physiological responsivity… [422] (1977)The effects of selected variables on interpretation of polygraph records
Journal of Applied Psychology Blind chart evaluators achieved only 63.3% accuracy on police cases when denied access to special charts available to original examiners, significantly below accuracy rates reported… [423] (1977 • CLASSIC)The Effect of Selected Variables on Interpretation of Polygraph Records
Journal of Applied Psychology Examined factors affecting polygraph chart interpretation including examiner experience. Found that trained examiners achieved significantly higher accuracy than untrained raters, emphasizing the importance of professional… [424] (1977)Wartość diagnostyczna badania poligraficznego i jej znaczenie kryminalistyczne
Polygraph examination produced 18 correct identifications out of 20 cases (90% accuracy rate), tied with graphological analysis for the fewest incorrect diagnoses and achieving the… [425] (1976)Validity and Reliability of Polygraph Examinations of Criminal Suspects
Report No. 76-1, U.S. Department of Justice (LEAA) One of the earliest rigorous field studies of the CQT with criminal suspects. Established baseline accuracy data that would be referenced in every subsequent government… [426] (1976 • FOUNDATIONAL ANALOG)Polygraph Validity and Reliability: A Review
Book Chapters Major review of laboratory and field studies establishing empirical support for polygraph validity. Identified key factors affecting accuracy and proposed standards for practice. [427] (1975)An Evaluation of Field Techniques in Detection of Deception
Psychophysiology The study achieved 81% correct classification excluding inconclusives. Electrodermal (skin resistance) measures proved most discriminating, followed by cardiovascular and respiration. Blind evaluations by five examiners… [428] (1974)The validity of the polygraph with schizophrenics
Polygraph The study found that polygraph examinations are generally valid with schizophrenic patients in stable states, but that agitated or acutely psychotic individuals produce unreliable results… [429] (1974)The validity of the polygraph with retardates
Journal of Police Science and Administration The polygraph produced physiologically interpretable and diagnostically valid results with individuals with intellectual disabilities, suggesting that cognitive limitations do not suppress the autonomic arousal mechanisms… [430] (1973)Detection of Deception in Electrodermal Activity
Psychological Research Electrodermal activity was identified as the most sensitive physiological parameter for deception detection, with differential increases in skin conductance and skin potential serving as valid… [431] (1973)The Polygraph in a Psychiatric Setting
American Journal of Psychiatry Polygraph testing using hierarchical stress word presentation could successfully identify emotionally significant material in psychiatric patients through differential physiological responses, offering a potential tool for… [432] (1972)An experimental study of field techniques in lie detection
Department of Psychology, University of Utah The zone comparison control question technique successfully differentiated guilty from innocent subjects, with electrodermal (skin conductance) measures proving to be the most accurate indicator of… [433] (1972)On the Detection of Deception: A Method for the Study of the Physiological Effects of Psychological Stimuli
Handbook of Psychophysiology Psychological rather than physiological variables are the primary determinants of differential physiological responsivity in deception detection; the GSR is the most reliable single laboratory discriminator;… [434] (1971 • CLASSIC)The Reliability of Polygraph Examiner Diagnosis of Truth and Deception
Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Seminal reliability study examining agreement among polygraph examiners interpreting the same charts. Found high inter-rater reliability for experienced examiners using structured scoring methods. [435] (1969)Technique Fundamentals of the Tri-Zone Polygraph Test
Backster developed the first numerical scoring system using a seven-point scale (-3 to +3) for evaluating physiological responses in comparison question tests, and established the… [436] (1969)Technique Fundamentals of Tri-Zone Polygraph Test
Backster formalized a structured three-zone question format (red/relevant, green/comparison, black/irrelevant) with numerical scoring (+3 to -3) across multiple physiological channels, establishing the You-Phase examination as… [437] (1969)Standardized Polygraph Notepack and Technique Guide. Backster Zone Comparison Technique
The ZCT pioneered numerical scoring in polygraph interpretation, replacing subjective assessment with a three-zone structure and cut-off scores (±5). This innovation became the most widely… [438] (1969 • CLASSIC FIELD STUDY)A Validation Study of Polygraph Examiner Judgments
Journal of Applied Psychology Pioneering field validity study using panel of attorneys to establish ground truth. Found 92% agreement between polygraph results and panel verdicts. One of the earliest… [439] (1969)Standardized polygraph examination notepack
The notepack established the three-zone structure (Red, Green, Black zones) and numerical scoring system (+3 to -3) that became the foundation for modern polygraph examination… [440] (1966)Truth and Deception: The Polygraph (Lie-Detector) Technique
Williams & Wilkins The book authoritatively codified the Reid Control Question Technique — including multi-channel physiological recording, control question logic, stimulation tests, and symptom-based chart interpretation — establishing… [441] (1966)Truth and Deception
The manual introduced the full Reid technique including control question methodology, the silent answer test, card tests, and procedures for managing responsive and unresponsive examinees,… [442] (1955)Blood Pressure Rises on Relevant Questions in Lie Detection: Sometimes an Indication of Innocence Not Guilt
The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science Innocent examinees demonstrated significant blood pressure elevations on relevant questions driven by anxiety about false accusation rather than fear of detection, with distinct physiological patterns… [443] (1955)Routine Screening of Criminal Suspects by the Polygraph (Lie-Detector) Technique
The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science Seven of nine deceptive subjects confessed to an additional 25 burglaries and implicated 7 accomplices, all of whom were arrested and corroborated the original confessions. [444] (1953)Lie detection and criminal investigation
The work formalized the Control Question Test approach, integrated behavioral observation with physiological measurement, and established standardized pre-test interview procedures that became foundational to the… [445] (1947)A revised questioning technique in lie detection tests
Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Reid established that innocent examinees would react more strongly to control questions about past wrongdoing, while guilty examinees would react more strongly to relevant crime… [446] (1947)The Control Question Test
Various Publications Invented the Control Question Test (CQT) — the testing format that would become the most widely used polygraph method worldwide. Reid’s innovation of using comparison… [447] (1945)Inbau, F. E. Lie detection and criminal interrogation. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co., 1942. Pp. viii + 142. $3.00
Journal of Clinical Psychology The review documented Inbau's influential synthesis of polygraph science and interrogation practice, notably his articulation of the peak-of-tension test for guilty knowledge examinations, establishing foundations… [448] (1931)Deception: a study in forensic psychology.
The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology The study contributed to conceptual frameworks distinguishing types of deceptive communication and establishing that deception involves both conscious cognitive processes and involuntary physiological responses, though… [449] (0)Psychophysiology and the detection of deception: promises and perils
The Comparison Question Test was found to have weak scientific validity that cannot be remedied by neuroimaging. Question format rather than measurement technology was identified…Related research topics
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