Countermeasures

[001] Julia Knappe; Markus Ullsperger; Hans Kirschner (2025)

Decoding Deception with the P300: A Meta-Analysis of the Concealed Information Test

Biological Psychology / Psychiatry Included 54 experimental studies using mock-crime and personal-item paradigms. Found a large mean effect size (d*) of 1.59 for the P300. Complex trial protocols maximized… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [002] Bruno J. Verschuere (2025)

Effective faking of verbal deception detection with target-aligned adversarial attacks

Legal and Criminological Psychology Target-aligned adversarial attacks using GPT-4 reduced both human and machine deception detection performance to chance levels (d = -0.07 to -0.04 for humans, 51% accuracy… AI & Machine Learning in Deception Detection [003] Zhi Li (2025)

Real-time cross-cultural lie detection system via multimodal fusion: microexpression enhancement and adversarial defense for forensics

Advances in Engineering Innovation The MPBFS achieved 84.6% accuracy (F1=0.87) on cross-cultural datasets at 23 FPS, with a 31% improvement in Cultural Stability Index and 42% reduction in adversarial… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [004] Julia Knappe, Markus Ullsperger, Hans Kirschner (2024)

The Concealed Information Test -- Utilizing P300 data to determine the presence of crime-related information in a suspect's memory

The meta-analysis found a large mean effect size (d* = 1.59) for P300-based CIT, with the complex trial protocol maximizing detection accuracy and reducing countermeasure… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [005] Julia Knappe, Markus Ullsperger, Hans Kirschner (2024)

The Concealed Information Test -- Utilizing P300 data to deter-mine the presence of crime-related information in a suspect's memory

The meta-analysis revealed a large mean effect size of d = 1.59 for P300-based concealed information detection. Moderation analyses showed that complex trial protocols significantly… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [006] Zvi Nisin, Galit Nahari, Morris Goldsmith (2024)

Lies divorced from context: evidence for Context Embedded Perception (CEP) as a feasible measure for deception detection

Psychology, Crime & Law CEP scores were significantly lower for liars than truth-tellers, with discriminant analysis achieving 92% correct identification of truth-tellers and 66% of liars (79% overall accuracy).… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [007] Ivory Yining Chen, Sebastiaan Mathot, Elkan G. Akyurek (2024)

Subtle gaze and pupil dynamics: Detecting concealed familiar faces with moving serial visual presentation

Pupil dilation rate achieved 55.2% individual-level detection of concealed familiar faces when eye movements were suppressed, substantially exceeding previous RSVP-CIT performance of 22.6%, though eye… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [008] M. E. U. Chowdhury Sajed, Arup Mazumder, M. R. Rahman Chowdhury, Jan Ehlers (2024)

Pupil Size Changes for Lie Detection in a Biofeedback Scenario

2024 IEEE International Conference on Computing, Applications and Systems (COMPAS) Free choice lies produced significantly larger pupil diameters than instructed false statements or instructed truth-telling. Real-time biofeedback did not support voluntary control of pupil size… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [009] Chen, I.Y., Karabay, A., Mathôt, S., Bowman, H., Akyürek, E.G. (2023)

Concealed identity information detection with pupillometry in rapid serial visual presentation

Psychophysiology Pupillometry during RSVP successfully detected concealed identity information at the group level in both an initial and preregistered replication study, with peak effects occurring 600-1200… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [010] Lancry-Dayan, O.C., Ben-Shakhar, G., Pertzov, Y. (2023)

The promise of eye-tracking in the detection of concealed memories

Trends in Cognitive Sciences Eye-tracking methods demonstrate particular promise for countermeasure resistance, with task-dependent gaze patterns and multiple oculomotor indices showing differential responses to familiar versus unfamiliar items. Neuroimaging & New Technologies [011] Elena V. Goncharenko, Sofia An. Argun, Zurab Yа. Mikvabiya, Svetlana Ab. Taisaeva, Olga A. Murzova, Anna A. Jokua, Dmitry A. Molev, Elena A. Novikova, Daria S. Semenova (2023)

Gestures-adapters for persons involved in the crime in non-instrumental lie detection

Vestnik of Kostroma State University Resource pantomime was observed in 95% of subjects. During deception, adapter gestures were fixed in 40% of horizontal and vertical strokes and 30% of self-touches,… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [012] Valentin Foucher (2023)

Using Eye Tracking to detect Faking Intentions

Proceedings of the 2023 Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications Fixation number and duration emerge as the most reliable indicators of deceptive intentions, while saccade amplitudes and pupil size show promising potential but require further… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [013] Klein Selle, N., Ben-Shakhar, G. (2023)

The effects of mental countermeasures on psychophysiological memory detection: Facilitating orientation is easy, stopping inhibition is not

Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition Facilitating orientation proved easy but stopping inhibition proved impossible - skin conductance was successfully manipulated while respiration and heart rate remained resistant to voluntary control. Countermeasures Research [014] Philipp Sprengholz, Franziska Schreckenbach, Carina G. Giesen, Nicolas Koranyi, Klaus Rothermund (2023)

Guilty on the Go: Uncovering Concealed Information by Assessing Response Preparation Processes in a Go-Nogo-Paradigm

Collabra: Psychology The paradigm detected both familiarity effects and response preparation processes in guilty participants, with reduced error rates for crime-related probes when preceded by matching prime… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [015] Gáspár Lukács (2023)

Response Time Concealed Information Test Using Fillers in Cybercrime and Concealed Identity Scenarios

Memory RT-CIT achieved AUC estimates around .70 for cybercrime details but around .95 for autobiographical items, demonstrating that memory type rather than filler design primarily determines… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [016] Hanwen Wang, Yu Qi, Hang Yu, Yueming Wang, Cong Liu, Guoping Hu, Gang Pan (2022)

RCIT: An RSVP-Based Concealed Information Test Framework Using EEG Signals

IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems The RCIT framework achieved 82.74% accuracy using linear discriminant analysis in subject-dependent testing and 64.07% accuracy in cross-subject testing. PZ and T7 electrode channels were… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [017] Jinbin Zheng, Jiayu Cheng, Chongxiang Wang, Xiaohong Lin, Genyue Fu, Liyang Sai (2022)

The effect of mental countermeasures on a novel brain‐based feedback concealed information test

Human Brain Mapping Mental countermeasures impaired recognition-P300 detection but did not significantly affect feedback-related ERPs, with feedback-P300 maintaining 86% detection accuracy (AUC = 0.86), demonstrating the fCIT's potential… Countermeasures Research [018] Bruno J. Verschuere (2021)

How Vulnerable is the Reaction Time Concealed Information Test to Faking?

Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition Without response deadlines, the RT-CIT was vulnerable to faking (d = 1.06-1.08), but implementation of an 800ms response deadline rendered faking completely ineffective (d =… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [019] Małgorzata Mickoś; Marek Leśniak (2021)

On the Influence of Sleep Deprivation on the Results of Polygraph Testing

European Polygraph Sleep deprivation of 24 hours did not significantly reduce polygraph detection accuracy in a concealed information test, and energy drink consumption did not alter test… Laboratory & Analog Studies [020] Gáspár Lukács (2021)

Addressing selective attrition in the enhanced response time-based concealed information test: A within-subject replication

Applied Cognitive Psychology The enhanced CIT with filler items significantly outperformed the standard version (d=1.07, p<.001) in a within-subject design that eliminated selective attrition as a confounding factor,… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [021] Millen, A.E., Hope, L., Hillstrom, A.P. (2020)

Eye spy a liar: assessing the utility of eye fixations and confidence judgments for detecting concealed recognition of faces, scenes and objects

Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications Recognition of personally familiar faces was robustly detected across multiple fixation markers (fewer fixations, fewer interest areas viewed, fewer return fixations) during both honest and… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [022] Owolafe Otasowie (2020)

Application of Machine Learning in Deception Detection

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing The neurofuzzy model achieved 97.1% accuracy with nonverbal cues alone, outperforming verbal-only (84.3%) and combined approaches (92.5%), while decision tree classifiers reached 97.6% accuracy on… AI & Machine Learning in Deception Detection [023] Danielle G. Norman, Daniel A. Gunnell, Aleksandra J. Mrowiec, Derrick G. Watson (2020)

Seen this scene? Scene recognition in the reaction-time Concealed Information Test

Memory & Cognition Scene stimuli produced RT-CIT effects equivalent to object stimuli with excellent diagnostic accuracy (AUC = .919, d = 1.93 for autobiographic scenes; AUC = .696-.709… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [024] Nathalie klein Selle (2020)

Is the CIT susceptible to misleading information? A constructive replication

International Journal of Psychophysiology Misleading information reduced explicit memory of mock crime details, but physiological CIT responses (skin conductance and respiration) were only partially attenuated, suggesting crime-relevant information detection… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [025] J. Rosenfeld, Elena Davydova, Elena Labkovsky, Anne Ward (2020)

Financial Incentive does not Affect P300 in the Complex Trial Protocol (CTP) Version in Concealed Information Test (CIT) in Malingering DetectionUninstructed Subjects

CHERKASY UNIVERSITY BULLETIN: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SERIES Financial incentive did not affect the P300 CIT effect across motivation conditions, though semantic memory probes (birthdates) produced larger P300s than episodic probes (names). The… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [026] Ward, A. C., Rosenfeld, J. P., Sitar, E. J., Wasserman, J. D. (2020)

The effect of retroactive memory interference on the P300-based Complex Trial Protocol (CTP)

International Journal of Psychophysiology Retroactive memory interference did not threaten P300-based CTP accuracy, with significant probe vs. irrelevant amplitude differences maintained across all experimental conditions regardless of interference manipulation… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [027] Kristina Suchotzki; Henrike May; Matthias Gamer (2020)

No effect of moderate alcohol intake on the detection of concealed identity information in the laboratory

Scientific Reports Moderate alcohol intake did not significantly affect the detection of concealed identity information in laboratory conditions. Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [028] (2020)

5 Costs and Consequences of Deception, Coercion, and False Confessions: The Norfolk Four

Understanding Police Interrogation All four wrongfully convicted sailors passed polygraph tests but were falsely told they failed; extended interrogations of 8-11 hours produced false confessions that were later… Legal & Policy Studies [029] Xiaochen Liu, Jizhong Shen, Wufeng Zhao (2019)

P300-based deception detection of mock network fraud with modified genetic algorithm and combined classification

2019 7th International Winter Conference on Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) The modified genetic algorithm and combined classification approach effectively detected concealed information about network fraud activities, demonstrating the feasibility of applying P300-based testing to cybercrime… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [030] Eitan Elaad, Liza Zvi (2019)

Frequent Countermeasure Usage by Narcissistic Examinees in the Concealed Information Test

Frontiers in Psychology Narcissistic personality traits and high self-assessed lie-telling ability significantly predicted the frequency with which guilty examinees employed countermeasures in the CIT, with particularly strong correlations… Countermeasures Research [031] Nahari, T., Lancry-Dayan, O., Ben-Shakhar, G., Pertzov, Y. (2019)

Detecting concealed familiarity using eye movements: the role of task demands

Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications In the concealed condition, participants showed significantly more fixations toward familiar faces (d = 1.06), but this effect completely disappeared when countermeasures were employed (d… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [032] Millen, A.E., Hancock, P.J.B. (2019)

Eye see through you! Eye tracking unmasks concealed face recognition despite countermeasures

Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications Longer fixation durations remained a consistent marker of concealed face recognition across both standard and countermeasures conditions, with differences detectable from the first fixation. In… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [033] Otasowie Owolafe (2019)

Detecting Deception Using Neurofuzzy Approach

International Journal of Intelligent Computing Research The neurofuzzy model achieved 97.1% accuracy detecting deception from nonverbal features alone, significantly outperforming both human judges and chance-level detection. Different algorithms performed optimally with… AI & Machine Learning in Deception Detection [034] Gáspár Lukács (2019)

Item roles explored in a modified P300-based CTP concealed information test

Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback Familiarity-related inducer items failed to enhance CIT sensitivity, but probe saliency robustly affected detection with higher personal importance items producing larger P300 effects. Neuroimaging & New Technologies [035] Gáspár Lukács (2019)

Information leakage in the response time-based concealed information test

Applied Cognitive Psychology Information leakage severely reduced traditional RT-CIT accuracy to AUC = .61-.64, but the novel Inducer-CIT maintained substantially higher accuracy of AUC = .73-.80 even when… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [036] Millen, A.E., Hancock, P.J.B. (2019)

Eye spy a liar: Detecting concealed familiarity using eye movement strategies

Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications Fixation duration proved remarkably robust to countermeasures, with the effect size for distinguishing familiar from unfamiliar faces actually larger in the countermeasures condition (d =… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [037] (2018)

James Q. Murdoch: How to Pass a Polygraph, San Bernardino 2018, 23 pp.

European Polygraph The review documents a commercially available countermeasure manual that provides step-by-step instructions on controlling physiological responses, managing anxiety, and employing mental and physical techniques to… Countermeasures Research [038] Lancry-Dayan, O.C., Nahari, T., Ben-Shakhar, G., Pertzov, Y. (2018)

Do You Know Him? Gaze Dynamics Toward Familiar Faces on a Concealed Information Test

Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The study achieved 89% accuracy in detecting concealed face recognition using eye-tracking. Participants showed an orientation-avoidance pattern (initial fixation on familiar faces followed by avoidance)… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [039] Jeffrey J. Walczyk, Nate Sewell, Meghan B. DiBenedetto (2018)

A Review of Approaches to Detecting Malingering in Forensic Contexts and Promising Cognitive Load-Inducing Lie Detection Techniques

Frontiers in Psychiatry Cognitive load techniques achieved 69% classification accuracy distinguishing truth tellers from liars using response time, answer consistency, eye movements, and pupil dilation, with low false-positive… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [040] Joseph Olson, J. Peter Rosenfeld, Taewoo Kim, Ella Perrault (2018)

The effect of countermeasures against the reaction time based concealed information test on the P300 index of knowledge recognition: A combined RT and P300-based test

International Journal of Psychophysiology Countermeasures successfully defeated the RT-based test by reversing the normal probe-irrelevant RT pattern, but paradoxically increased P300 probe-irrelevant differences, leading to improved brain-based detection. This… Countermeasures Research [041] Gamer, M., Pertzov, Y. (2018)

Eye movement research: Review of methodology and an update on recent developments

Eye movements reliably reveal concealed recognition, with familiar items eliciting longer fixation durations and fewer total fixations. Studies achieved 65% detection accuracy in some paradigms,… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [042] Kristina Suchotzki; Matthias Gamer (2018)

Alcohol facilitates detection of concealed identity information

Scientific Reports Alcohol facilitated detection of concealed identity information, suggesting that intoxication impairs the cognitive control necessary to effectively conceal recognized information. Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [043] Volz, K., Bahr, L., Heinrichs, M., Vaitl, D., Ambach, W. (2017)

The Concealed Information Test is susceptible to misleading information

Journal of Forensic Sciences Misleading information presented after encoding completely eliminated the CIT effect across all three physiological measures (skin conductance, respiration, heart rate), while control participants showed clear… Laboratory & Analog Studies [044] Millen, A., Hope, L., Hillstrom, A., Vrij, A. (2017)

Tracking the truth: the effect of face familiarity on eye fixations during deception

The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Eye tracking successfully detected concealed recognition with large effect sizes for personally known faces (d = 0.9) and moderate effects for celebrities (d = 0.5),… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [045] Gáspár Lukács; Béla Weiss; Vera Daniella Dalos; Tünde Kilencz; C. Antal; Á. Szabó (2016 • INDEPENDENT REPLICATION)

The First Independent Study on the Complex Trial Protocol Version of the P300-Based Concealed Information Test

International Journal of Psychophysiology First independent replication of Rosenfeld’s Complex Trial Protocol. Corroborated accuracy and countermeasure resistance of the CTP when using probe vs. all-irrelevant comparison, but identified vulnerability… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [046] Galit Nahari (2016)

Advances in Lie Detection

Wrongful Allegations of Sexual and Child Abuse Research shows human deception detection accuracy averages only 54%, polygraph false positive rates average 19.1%, and verbal methods like the Verifiability Approach can achieve 90%… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [047] Peth, J., Suchotzki, K., Gamer, M. (2016)

Influence of countermeasures on the validity of the Concealed Information Test

Psychophysiology Electrodermal responses showed significant degradation under countermeasures (particularly physical countermeasures), while combined autonomic scoring and ocular measures (fixations, blinks) maintained validity independent of countermeasure usage.… Countermeasures Research [048] Leonard Goodson (2015)

Pre-test Breathing Instructions

Polygraph Pre-test breathing instructions nearly doubled examiner perceptions of countermeasures (from 40.8% to 59.2%) and increased artifact detection rates, with concerning low inter-rater reliability. Training, Standards & Professional Practice [049] Anthony D. Wagner (2015)

Goal-directed modulation of neural memory patterns: Implications for fMRI-based memory detection

Journal of Neuroscience Cognitive countermeasures reduced fMRI memory decoding from a reliable AUC of 0.67 (63% accuracy) under truthful reporting to chance-level performance (AUC = 0.51), with classifiers… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [050] Nathan J. Gordon (2015)

A Theoretical Analysis of the Directed Lie Question (DLC)

European Polygraph The analysis questions whether the DLC's adoption represents genuine scientific advancement or a problematic simplification driven by political correctness and examiner convenience rather than empirical… Comparison Question Test (CQT) [051] Tuvia Shurany (2015)

Using the Polygraph Validation Test (PVT) in Solving Conflicted Polygraph Results and Confirming Deliberate Distortions by Examinees

European Polygraph The PVT successfully resolved all 51 cases of conflicted polygraph results and confirmed suspected deliberate distortions, with classic physiological patterns (POT reactions) indicating when examinees… Countermeasures Research [052] Xiaoqing Hu (2015)

Suppressing unwanted autobiographical memories reduces their automatic influences: Evidence from electrophysiology and an implicit autobiographical memory test

Psychological Science Memory suppression eliminated the P300 guilty knowledge effect, rendering suppression and innocent groups indistinguishable on this measure, though combined analysis of P300 and late posterior… Countermeasures Research [053] Yair Neuman, Dan Assaf, Navot Israeli (2015)

Identifying the location of a concealed object through unintentional eye movements

Frontiers in Psychology The entropy-based algorithm successfully identified concealed spatial locations through passive analysis of eye movement patterns, with target cells showing high entropy values and narrow entropy… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [054] Charles Robert Honts; Mark Handler; Pamela K. Shaw; Michael C. Gougler (2015)

Directed Lie Comparison Questions and Countermeasure Resistance

Various Publications Examined whether directed-lie comparison questions offer better countermeasure resistance. Research suggests that modern testing formats with directed lies may be more robust against deliberate manipulation… Countermeasures Research [055] Charles Robert Honts; Racheal Reavy (2015 • 250-PARTICIPANT STUDY)

Countermeasure Attempts in the Directed-Lie vs. Probable-Lie CQT

Physiology & Behavior In their 250-participant study, found no differences between DL and PL test types in spontaneous countermeasure attempts, suggesting directed-lie format is not more vulnerable. Countermeasures Research [056] Julie Niziurski, Jeffrey Andre (2015)

Exploring the Characteristics of the Attentional Blink Paradigm When Used to Discover Concealed Knowledge

Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback The attentional blink successfully detected concealed knowledge in most participants, but eight of 21 knowledgeable participants (38%) detected the target on 100% of trials despite… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [057] Suchotzki, K., Crombez, G., Debey, E., Van Oorsouw, K., Verschuere, B. (2015)

In vino veritas? Alcohol, response inhibition and lying

Alcohol and Alcoholism Alcohol significantly impaired response inhibition (longer stop-signal reaction times with higher BAC) but had no effect on the cognitive costs of lying, challenging the theory… Laboratory & Analog Studies [058] (2014)

Reaction Time

Encyclopedia of Deception Meta-analysis found lying produces a large RT delay (d = 1.049) compared to truth-telling, even after correcting for publication bias. The RT-CIT shows low false… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [059] Nahari, G., Vrij, A., Fisher, R.P. (2014)

The verifiability approach: Countermeasures facilitate its ability to discriminate between truths and lies

Applied Cognitive Psychology When forewarned about verifiability checking, truth-tellers provided significantly more verifiable details than liars (d = 1.14), demonstrating that the Verifiability Approach is resistant to countermeasures… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [060] Eitan Elaad (2014)

Covert Detection of Deception

Detecting Deception Covert methods show promise for overcoming countermeasures in deception detection. Thermal imaging successfully discriminated guilty from innocent participants via periorbital temperature changes, while covert respiration… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [061] Raskin, D.C., Honts, C.R., Kircher, J.C. (2014)

Credibility Assessment: Scientific Research and Applications

Elsevier Academic Press Polygraph test accuracy is estimated at approximately 89% for specific-incident criminal investigations and 85% for screening applications. Electrodermal reactions are the most diagnostic psychophysiological measure,… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [062] (2014)

False Confessions

Encyclopedia of Deception Polygraph examiners interpret ambiguous charts as indicating deception when told suspects confessed; false claims of polygraph failure have caused documented false confessions; police are legally… Legal & Policy Studies [063] Labkovsky, E., & Rosenfeld, J. P. (2014)

A novel dual probe complex trial protocol for detection of concealed information

Psychophysiology The Dual Probe Complex Trial Protocol achieved 94.7% accuracy (bootstrap criterion .9) and AUC of .92, successfully detecting concealed information even when examinees used mental… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [064] Shinji Hira, Yuhki Yamashita, Yoko Saragai, Yuki Hamamoto, Isato Furumitsu (2014)

Effects of countermeasures on P300-based concealed information test using a new multiple probe protocol

International Journal of Psychophysiology The study examined countermeasure resistance of a new multiple probe protocol for P300-based CIT, though specific detection rates and statistical results are not available in… Countermeasures Research [065] Gil Luria, Allon Kahana, Sara Rosenblum (2014)

Detection of Deception Via Handwriting Behaviors Using a Computerized Tool: Toward an Evaluation of Malingering

Cognitive Computation Deceptive writing was significantly broader and took longer than truthful writing. Three distinct handwriting profiles emerged with profile-specific spatial and temporal differences between deceptive and… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [066] Martha J. Farah, J. Benjamin Hutchinson, Elizabeth A. Phelps, Anthony D. Wagner (2014)

Erratum: Functional MRI-based lie detection: scientific and societal challenges

Nature Reviews Neuroscience The meta-analysis revealed no brain region consistently associated with deception across studies, accuracy rates varying from 69-100%, and countermeasures reducing detection from 100% to 33%.… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [067] Charles Robert Honts (2014 • CQT COUNTERMEASURES CHAPTER)

Countermeasures and Credibility Assessment

In Raskin, Honts & Kircher (Eds.), Credibility Assessment: Scientific Research and Applications, Academic Press Updated review of countermeasure research including developments since the 2003 NRC report. Discussed cognitive load as a factor in countermeasure resistance. Countermeasures Research [068] Xiaoqing Hu (2013)

An interfering dot-probe task facilitates the detection of mock crime memory in a reaction time (RT)-based concealed information test

Acta Psychologica Adding a within-trial dot-probe interference task boosted detection AUC from .88 to .94 and classification accuracy from 85.7% to 92.1%, with the correct rejection rate… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [069] William G. Iacono, Christopher J. Patrick (2013)

Employing Polygraph Assessment

The Handbook of Forensic Psychology The CQT has weak theoretical foundations, is biased against innocent examinees, and vulnerability to countermeasures. Field validity studies systematically overestimate accuracy due to confession-verification bias,… Foundational & Historical Research [070] 이병하, 엄진섭, Kwangbai Park, Jin-Hun Sohn, Hwang Soon Taeg (2013)

P300-based Concealed Information Test and Inter-Stimulus Intervals (ISIs): A Comparison Among 500ms, 800ms, and 3000ms ISIs

한국심리학회지: 사회및성격 The 800ms ISI preserved P300 amplitude differences between probe and irrelevant stimuli comparable to the standard 3000ms ISI and maintained resistance to countermeasures, while 500ms… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [071] Rusconi, E., Mitchener-Nissen, T. (2013)

Prospects of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging as Lie Detector

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience The authors conclude that fMRI is unlikely to constitute a viable lie detector for criminal courts due to unresolved scientific limitations (group vs. individual inference,… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [072] Bergstrom, Z.M., Anderson, M.C., Buda, M., Simons, J.S., Richardson-Klavehn, A. (2013)

Intentional retrieval suppression can conceal guilty knowledge in ERP memory detection tests

Biological Psychology When motivated to suppress crime retrieval, participants' memory-related ERP effects were significantly decreased, allowing guilty individuals to evade detection, challenging the core assumption that neural… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [073] Walczyk, J.J., Igou, F.P., Dixon, A.P., Tcholakian, T. (2013)

Advancing lie detection by inducing cognitive load on liars: A review of relevant theories and techniques guided by lessons from polygraph-based approaches

Frontiers in Psychology Cognitive load-inducing techniques use heightened cognitive load indices rather than physiological arousal as primary deception cues. The proposed taxonomy classifies techniques by cognitive load type… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [074] Agosta, S., Sartori, G. (2013)

The autobiographical IAT: a review

Frontiers in Psychology Validation experiments demonstrated over 90% accuracy in detecting true autobiographical memories, with test-retest agreement exceeding 90% and split-half reliability of 88%. The technique successfully detected… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [075] Michael R. Winograd (2013)

P900: A Putative Novel ERP Component that Indexes Countermeasure Use in the P300-Based Concealed Information Test

Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback P900 was observed in all subjects specifically in response to non-countered stimuli, was absent for countered stimuli, and could be elicited without the presence of… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [076] Ke Zhang, Lara A. Frumkin, Alex Stedmon, Glyn Lawson (2013)

Deception in Context: Coding Nonverbal Cues, Situational Variables and Risk of Detection

Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology Across three studies, deceivers showed consistent hand movement reduction. Higher risk of detection magnified overall negative and controlled impressions (M=2.51 vs. M=2.14 for lower risk)… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [077] Seymour, T., Baker, C., Gaunt, J. (2013)

Combining blink, pupil, and response time measures in a concealed knowledge test

Frontiers in Psychology Response time achieved a 0.98 classification rate, and individual ocular measures (pupil-size, pupil-slope, pre-response blink-rate) each produced efficient classifications. Combining pupil and blink measures improved… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [078] Labkovsky, E., Rosenfeld, J.P. (2012)

The P300-Based, Complex Trial Protocol for Concealed Information Detection Resists Any Number of Sequential Countermeasures Against Up to Five Irrelevant Stimuli

Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback The Complex Trial Protocol achieved 92-100% detection of guilty participants across all countermeasure conditions (1-5 countered stimuli) with just one false positive in 13 innocents.… Countermeasures Research [079] Van Bockstaele, B., Verschuere, B., Moens, T., Suchotzki, K., Debey, E., Spruyt, A. (2012)

Learning to lie: Effects of practice on the cognitive cost of lying

Frontiers in Psychology Frequent liars showed a 53 ms lie-effect during training, compared to 239 ms for frequent truth-tellers, but training effects did not generalize to unpracticed items… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [080] Xiaoqing Hu; D. Hegman; E. Landry; J. Peter Rosenfeld (2012)

Increasing Irrelevant Stimuli Increases Ability to Detect Countermeasures

Psychophysiology Found that increasing the number of irrelevant stimuli in P300-based CIT improved the ability to detect countermeasure use. Advanced the complex trial protocol methodology for… Countermeasures Research [081] Xiaoqing Hu (2012)

Combating automatic autobiographical associations: The effect of instruction and training in strategically concealing information in the autobiographical implicit association test

Psychological Science Explicit instruction and training allowed guilty participants to reverse their aIAT outcomes by strategically speeding up incongruent block responses, and critically, this form of countermeasure… Countermeasures Research [082] Xiaoqing Hu (2012)

A repeated lie becomes a truth? The effect of intentional control and training on deception

Frontiers in Psychology Training with intentional practice (360 additional deceptive-response trials) fully erased the reaction-time gap between lying and truth-telling (108.67 ms reduced to a non-significant 15.82 ms;… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [083] Hu, X., Hegeman, D., Landry, E., Rosenfeld, J.P. (2012)

Increasing the number of irrelevant stimuli increases ability to detect countermeasures to the P300-based complex trial protocol for concealed information detection

Psychophysiology Increasing irrelevant stimuli from four to eight restored reaction time as an effective countermeasure detector in 50% and 75% countermeasure conditions, while P300-based detection maintained… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [084] Kiho Kim, Jang-Han Lee (2012)

Lie-detection using Autobiographical Implicit Association Test

PsycEXTRA Dataset Validation research on the aIAT demonstrated over 90% accuracy in detecting true autobiographical memories, with test-retest reliability also exceeding 90%, though subsequent research identified vulnerabilities… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [085] Tuvia Shurany (2011)

Polygraph Verification Test

European Polygraph The PVT provides examiners with a validated tool for confirming suspicions about test interference when original polygraph results are questionable or conflicted. Countermeasures Research [086] Winograd, M., Rosenfeld, J.P. (2011)

Mock crime application of the complex-trial protocol (CTP) P300-based Concealed Information Test

Psychophysiology Overall 92% correct classification rate across all conditions (guilty, innocent, countermeasure groups). The CTP demonstrated high sensitivity (87% overall) and specificity in detecting incidentally acquired… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [087] Sokolovsky, A., Rothenberg, J., Labkovsky, E., Meixner, J., Rosenfeld, J.P. (2011)

A novel countermeasure against the reaction time index of countermeasure use in the P300-based complex trial protocol for detection of concealed information

International Journal of Psychophysiology Detection rates remained high (83-92%) based on P300 for all groups, but simultaneous countermeasure execution made reaction times indistinguishable from controls, defeating the RT-based countermeasure… Countermeasures Research [088] J. Giorgio Ganis Peter Rosenfeld; J. Meixner; Rogier A. Kievit; Haline E. Schendan (2011 • fMRI COUNTERMEASURES)

Lying in the Scanner: Covert Countermeasures Disrupt Deception Detection by Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

NeuroImage Demonstrated that covert countermeasures significantly reduced fMRI lie detection accuracy. Subjects trained in imperceptible finger movements disrupted brain activation patterns associated with deception. Neuroimaging & New Technologies [089] Carolyn M. Hurley, Mark G. Frank (2011)

Executing Facial Control During Deception Situations

Journal of Nonverbal Behavior Participants could significantly reduce but not eliminate facial movements when instructed to suppress them, with liars showing lesser suppression ability than truth-tellers. The lower face… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [090] J. Peter Rosenfeld (2011 – ONGOING)

P300-Based Brain-Computer Interface Deception Detection

Psychophysiology Development and validation of the Complex Trial Protocol (CTP) for P300-based concealed information detection. Demonstrated large effect sizes (d* = 1.59–1.89) for brain-wave-based detection, with… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [091] Michael R. Winograd (2011)

Mock crime application of the Complex Trial Protocol (CTP) P300-based concealed information test

Psychophysiology Overall classification accuracy reached 92% across all participant groups, with all 12 countermeasure users correctly identified and reaction times serving as a reliable auxiliary index… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [092] Rosenfeld, J.P., Labkovsky, E. (2010)

New P300-based protocol to detect concealed information: resistance to mental countermeasures against only half the irrelevant stimuli and a possible ERP indicator of countermeasures

Psychophysiology The Complex Trial Protocol achieved 100% detection accuracy in both simple guilty and countermeasure groups when comparing probe versus all averaged irrelevants, with 92-100% accuracy… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [093] Meixner, J.B., Rosenfeld, J.P. (2010)

Countermeasure mechanisms in a P300-based concealed information test

Psychophysiology The study found a greater P300 amplitude to probes in the guilty omit probe condition compared with the guilty no omit and innocent omit irrelevant… Countermeasures Research [094] Tuvia Shurany (2010)

Confirmed Mental Countermeasure Case in Costa Rica

European Polygraph Mental countermeasures were successfully identified and confirmed through examination procedures, demonstrating the detectability of covert attempts to defeat polygraph testing. Countermeasures Research [095] Dario Cvencek (2010)

Faking of the Implicit Association Test is statistically detectable and partly correctable

Basic and Applied Social Psychology The Combined Task Slowing (CTS) index detected instructed IAT faking with an average 75% accuracy (AUC up to .86) across four studies; CTS-based score adjustment… Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [096] J. Peter Rosenfeld; Elena Labkovsky (2010)

New P300-based protocol to detect concealed information: resistance to mental countermeasures

Psychophysiology The Complex Trial Protocol successfully resisted mental countermeasures applied to half the irrelevant stimuli, maintaining detection accuracy where traditional P300 methods would fail. Neuroimaging & New Technologies [097] Honts, C.R., & Crawford, M. (2010)

Polygraph countermeasures cannot be detected from respiratory signatures: Government policy puts the innocent at risk

Polygraph examiners could not reliably detect countermeasures from respiratory patterns, contradicting policy assumptions and creating significant false positive risks for innocent examinees showing normal stress-related… Countermeasures Research [098] Ming Ann Lui; J. Peter Rosenfeld (2009 • SUBLIMINAL PRIMING)

The Application of Subliminal Priming in Lie Detection: Scenario for Identification of Members of a Terrorist Ring

Psychophysiology Novel application combining subliminal priming with P300 CIT for counterterrorism screening scenarios. Demonstrated potential for detecting concealed associations without overt questioning. Neuroimaging & New Technologies [099] J. Peter Rosenfeld; Xiaoqing Hu; Elena Labkovsky; J. Meixner; Michael R. Winograd (2009 • ERP REVIEW)

Review of Recent Studies and Issues Regarding the P300-Based Complex Trial Protocol for Detection of Concealed Information

International Journal of Psychophysiology Comprehensive review summarizing more than a dozen CTP studies. Documented diagnostic accuracy from 75–90%, described enhancements using N200, performance feedback, and auxiliary tests that restored… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [100] Ming Ann Lui (2009)

Thirty-site P300 scalp distribution, amplitude variance across sites, and amplitude in detection of deceptive concealment of multiple guilty items

Social Neuroscience Amplitude variance across 30 scalp sites and P300 amplitude at multiple nonfrontal sites each correctly identified 71% of guilty subjects, with false positive rates of… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [101] Michael R. Winograd (2009)

Assigned Versus Random, Countermeasure-Like Responses in the P300 Based Complex Trial Protocol for Detection of Deception: Task Demand Effects

Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback Under low-demand random response conditions, the CTP achieved a guilty hit rate of 11/12 with zero false positives; however, under higher-demand assigned response conditions, the… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [102] Harris, J.C., McQuarrie, A.D. (2009)

The Preliminary Credibility Assessment System Embedded Algorithm Description and Validation Results

Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Validation studies showed 80% accuracy when inconclusives were excluded, with 23% inconclusive rates. When inconclusives were included, accuracy dropped to 63-79%. The algorithm was deliberately… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [103] Vladimir Vladimirovich Korovin; Aleksandr Petrovich Soshnikov; Stanislav Sokolovskis (2008)

Ways of Revealing Resistance Against Polygraph Testing

European Polygraph The study identifies specific techniques and indicators that can be used to detect when subjects are employing resistance strategies during polygraph testing. Countermeasures Research [104] J.P. Rosenfeld, M.R. Winograd, A. Haynes, E.B. Labkovsky (2008)

Enhancing the complex trial protocol (CTP) and detecting concealed information in a mock crime scenario

International Journal of Psychophysiology The CTP achieved greater than 90% detection accuracy across all testing conditions including when participants attempted countermeasures. Countermeasure use was detectable via elevated reaction times,… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [105] Ralf Mertens; John J.B. Allen (2008 • FORENSIC ASSESSMENT)

The Role of Psychophysiology in Forensic Assessments: Deception Detection, ERPs, and Virtual Reality Mock Crime Scenarios

Psychophysiology Introduced virtual reality mock crimes to increase ecological validity. Found enhanced realism improved physiological differentiation between guilty and innocent participants in CIT paradigms. Neuroimaging & New Technologies [106] Stephen B. Porter (2008)

Reading Between the Lies: Identifying Concealed and Falsified Emotions in Universal Facial Expressions

Psychological Science Inconsistent emotional leakage occurred in 100% of participants attempting deception, yet true microexpressions appeared in only 21.95% of participants and just 2% of all expressions… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [107] Saldžiūnas, V., Kovalenko, A. (2008)

The Event Knowledge Test

European Polygraph P3 responses were obtained only to counted and chosen objects in 7 of 10 valid subjects, demonstrating that recognition memory for crime-relevant items persists despite… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [108] Rosenfeld, J.P., Labkovsky, E., Winograd, M., Lui, M.A., Vandenboom, C., Chedid, E. (2008)

The complex-trial protocol (CTP): A new, countermeasure-resistant, accurate P300-based method for detection of concealed information

Psychophysiology The CTP maintained hit rates greater than 90% across all conditions including active countermeasure use, with false positive rates of 0-0.08 and A′ discrimination values… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [109] J. Peter Rosenfeld (2008 • COMPLEX TRIAL PROTOCOL)

Development of a Countermeasure-Resistant P300-Based Concealed Information Test

Psychophysiology Introduced the Complex Trial Protocol (CTP) specifically designed to resist countermeasures that defeated earlier P300 methods. Achieved high accuracy even with countermeasure-trained subjects. Neuroimaging & New Technologies [110] Bles, M., Haynes, J.-D. (2008)

Detecting concealed information using brain-imaging technology

Neurocase Neuroimaging-based deception detection faces substantial challenges including vulnerability to countermeasures, limited ecological validity of laboratory paradigms, and the fundamental limitation that decoding performs pattern recognition… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [111] Michael R. Winograd (2008)

The Complex Trial Protocol (CTP): a new, countermeasure-resistant, accurate, P300-based method for detection of concealed information

Psychophysiology Detection accuracy exceeded 90% across all conditions including active countermeasure use, and a novel dual-channel detection system using both P300 amplitude and reaction time patterns… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [112] Ogilvie, J., & Dutton, D.W. (2008)

Improving the detection of physical countermeasures with chair sensors

Polygraph The addition of countermeasure sensors significantly improved examiners' performance in detecting physical countermeasures, while sensor information did not affect scores for examinees who were not… Countermeasures Research [113] Jerzy Konieczny (2007)

An attempt to falsify the results of a polygraph test through the implementation of false memory: a case study

European Polygraph The study explored the relationship between false memory techniques and polygraph test validity, though specific results are not accessible without the full text. Countermeasures Research [114] Wendy R. Alloway (2007)

Information Does Not Affect the Validity of a Comparison Question Test

Legal and Criminological Psychology Providing examinees with detailed CQT information and countermeasure instructions did not significantly affect test validity; moreover, self-reported countermeasure use was associated with a lower (not… Countermeasures Research [115] Tatia Mei Chun Lee (2005)

Neural correlates of feigned memory impairment

NeuroImage Bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, anterior cingulate, and caudate nucleus during feigned memory impairment was invariant across different stimulus types, participant genders,… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [116] Sven Å. Christianson, Harald Merckelbach (2004)

Crime-related amnesia as a form of deception

The Detection of Deception in Forensic Contexts Between 25-40% of homicide offenders claim amnesia for their crimes. Symptom Validity Testing achieves 40-65% detection rates for simulators, though sensitivity drops with coaching. The… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [117] Antoinette R. Miller, J. Peter Rosenfeld (2004)

Response-Specific Scalp Distributions in Deception Detection and ERP Correlates of Psychopathic Personality Traits

Journal of Psychophysiology P300-based detection using bootstrapped peak-to-peak amplitudes correctly identified 100% of low psychopathic trait and 92% of high psychopathic trait participants, with both groups showing malingering-related… Neuroimaging & New Technologies [118] Gershon Ben-Shakhar; Eitan Elaad (2003)

CIT and Countermeasures

Journal of Applied Psychology Found that compared with CQT, there is less evidence that individuals tested through CIT could employ countermeasures to alter results. CIT demonstrated greater resistance to… Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews [119] National Research Council (2003 • NRC ASSESSMENT)

Countermeasures Assessment (NRC Chapter 6)

The Polygraph and Lie Detection, National Academies Press, Ch. 6 NRC concluded “countermeasures pose a serious threat” because all physiological indicators can be altered by conscious effort. However, noted limited evidence on countermeasure effectiveness in… Government Scientific Reviews [120] Vrij, A., Akehurst, L., Soukara, S., Bull, R. (2002)

Will the truth come out? The effect of deception, age, status, coaching, and social skills on CBCA scores

Law and Human Behavior CBCA scores discriminated truth from lies across age groups and roles, but only when liars were uninformed about CBCA criteria. When coached about the criteria,… Verbal & Behavioral Deception Detection [121] Daniel S Greenberg (2002)

washington Polygraph fails scientific review in the USA

The Lancet The NAS report equated polygraph screening with voodooism, finding it worthless for security screening and easily defeated by countermeasures, while acknowledging above-chance accuracy only for… Government Scientific Reviews [122] Bruno J. Verschuere; V. Prati; Jan De Houwer (2002 • IMPLICIT MEASURES)

Detecting Deception with Implicit Behavioral Measures

Psychophysiology Explored implicit measures (reaction times, IAT) as supplements to physiological deception detection. Found promising but modest detection rates, suggesting potential as auxiliary measures. Reaction Time & Cognitive Load Methods [123] Charles Robert Honts (2002 • COUNTERMEASURE DETECTION)

Detection of Subjects Employing Directed Countermeasures on the Comparison Question Test

Legal and Criminological Psychology Investigated whether countermeasure use could itself be detected. Found that some countermeasure behaviors produced distinctive physiological patterns detectable by experienced examiners. Countermeasures Research [124] Charles Robert Honts; S. L. Amato; Nathan J. Gordon (2001 • COUNTERMEASURE REVIEW)

Countermeasures and the Polygraph

Book Chapters Comprehensive review chapter covering all known countermeasure methods and their effectiveness. Concluded countermeasures are a serious threat but their practical impact may be limited by… Countermeasures Research [125] Honts, C.R., Amato, S., & Gordon, A.K. (2001)

Effects of spontaneous countermeasures used against the comparison question test

Polygraph Spontaneous countermeasures were attempted by 67.7% of participants but did not affect outcomes for guilty examinees while significantly shifting innocent subjects' scores; expert examiners could… Countermeasures Research [126] Mark Handler; Charles Robert Honts (1999 • SPONTANEOUS CM)

Spontaneous Countermeasures in Naive Subjects During Polygraph Testing

Polygraph Investigated whether untrained subjects spontaneously employ countermeasure-like behaviors. Found that some naive subjects did make deliberate efforts to alter their responses, but with limited success. Countermeasures Research [127] Charles Robert Honts; Mary K. Devitt; Marcus Winbush; John C. Kircher (1996)

Mental and Physical Countermeasures Reduce the Accuracy of the Concealed Knowledge Test

Psychophysiology Investigated whether countermeasures can defeat the CIT. Found that both mental and physical countermeasures reduced detection accuracy. However, the CIT was found to be more… Countermeasures Research [128] D. W. Corcoran (1996 • BIOFEEDBACK)

Effects of Biofeedback Training on Polygraph Outcomes

Psychophysiology Tested whether biofeedback training in physiological self-regulation could enable subjects to defeat polygraph. Found modest effects, primarily on cardiovascular measures. Countermeasures Research [129] Honts, C. R., Raskin, D. C., Kircher, J. C. (1994)

Effects of countermeasures on the control-question polygraph test

Journal of Applied Psychology Both mental and physical countermeasures enabled approximately 50% of guilty subjects to defeat the CQT, with strongest effects observed in cardiovascular measures. Countermeasures were difficult… Countermeasures Research [130] Charles Robert Honts; David C. Raskin; John C. Kircher (1994)

Mental and Physical Countermeasures in CQT Polygraph Testing

Journal of Applied Psychology Landmark study on countermeasures. Found that trained countermeasure use could affect CQT accuracy, but untrained subjects remained highly detectable. One of the most-cited countermeasure studies… Countermeasures Research [131] Charles Robert Honts; David C. Raskin; John C. Kircher (1994 • LANDMARK STUDY)

Countermeasures and CQT Accuracy

Journal of Applied Psychology Definitive study on countermeasures in CQT. Found that trained countermeasure users could reduce detection rates, but detection of countermeasure use itself is possible. Untrained subjects… Countermeasures Research [132] Laura I. Rovner (1993 • INFORMATION STUDY)

Effect of Prior Knowledge and Training on CQT Performance

Polygraph Examined whether subjects with prior knowledge of polygraph procedures showed different accuracy rates. Found minimal impact of knowledge alone without countermeasure training. Countermeasures Research [133] William George Iacono; Anthony M. Cerri; Christopher J. Patrick; Jonathan A. E. Fleming (1992)

Use of antianxiety drugs as countermeasures in the detection of guilty knowledge

Journal of Applied Psychology Drug status had no influence on GKT outcomes—diazepam, meprobamate, and propranolol all failed as countermeasures. Innocent subjects who coincidentally scored high on recognition memory tests… Countermeasures Research [134] Elaad, E., Ben-Shakhar, G. (1991)

Effects of mental countermeasures on psychophysiological detection in the guilty knowledge test

International Journal of Psychophysiology Item-specific mental countermeasures tended to increase psychophysiological detection, whereas continuous dissociation strategies decreased detection efficiency, with patterns consistent across field and laboratory settings. Countermeasures Research [135] Raskin, D.C., Kircher, J.C. (1990)

Development of a Computerized Polygraph System and Physiological Measures for Detection of Deception and Countermeasures: A Pilot Study

Contract Report The study demonstrated the feasibility of fully computerized polygraph systems for both data acquisition and automated analysis, contributing to algorithms and measurement techniques that formed… Foundational & Historical Research [136] Honts, C.R., Raskin, D.C., Kircher, J.C., & Hodes, R.L. (1988)

Effects of spontaneous countermeasures on the physiological detection of deception

Journal of Police Science and Administration Sixty percent of guilty subjects spontaneously attempted countermeasures (primarily relaxation and breathing control), but these untrained tactics had no effect on test outcomes, with evaluators… Countermeasures Research [137] Stevenson, M., & Barry, G. (1988)

Use of a motion chair in the detection of physical countermeasures

Defence Life Science Journal Subliminal aversive stimuli acted as an effective deterrent to physical countermeasures during polygraph testing, with significantly fewer countermeasure attempts compared to supraliminal (consciously perceived) stimuli… Countermeasures Research [138] Honts, C.R. (1987)

Interpreting research on countermeasures and the physiological detection of deception

Journal of Police Science and Administration Test format determines optimal countermeasure strategy: Concealed Information Tests require hyperresponsivity/hyporesponsivity strategies while Control Question Tests require selective augmentation of responses. The framework explains apparently… Countermeasures Research [139] Charles Robert Honts; Robert L. Hodes; David C. Raskin (1985)

The Use of Countermeasures: Categorical Decisions Based on Three Interpretations

Psychophysiology Early countermeasure study showing that physical countermeasures could be trained in laboratory settings. Provided the first systematic data on countermeasure effectiveness that would influence decades… Countermeasures Research [140] Charles Robert Honts; Robert L. Hodes; David C. Raskin (1985 • FOUNDATIONAL)

The Effects of Physical Countermeasures on the Physiological Detection of Deception

Journal of Applied Psychology First systematic countermeasure study. Trained subjects used physical countermeasures (tongue biting, toe pressing) during control questions. Approximately 50% of trained subjects defeated the test. Countermeasures Research [141] Gatchel, R.J., Smith, J.E., Kaplan, N.M. (1984)

The effect of propranolol on polygraphic detection of deception

Unpublished manuscript Propranolol administration resulted in a 32.2% inconclusive rate during polygraph examinations, primarily by reducing the physiological differentiation between control and relevant questions rather than producing… Countermeasures Research [142] Lykken, D. T. (1984)

Trial by polygraph

Behavioral Sciences & the Law Lykken documented that the Control Question Technique lacked adequate scientific validity for forensic use, with evidence suggesting high false positive rates potentially approaching 50%. The… Foundational & Historical Research [143] Jonathan A. E. Fleming (1984)

Effects of diazepam and methylphenidate on the electrodermal detection of guilty knowledge

Journal of Applied Psychology Neither diazepam nor methylphenidate impaired the validity of the Guilty Knowledge Test, which achieved an overall classification accuracy of 94% across all drug conditions. Subjects… Countermeasures Research [144] DAVID T. LYKKEN (1984)

Detecting Deception in 1984

American Behavioral Scientist Lykken concluded that polygraph tests are wrong one-third of the time overall, biased against innocent and conscientious persons, can be beaten by sophisticated liars, and… Foundational & Historical Research [145] Honts, C.R., Raskin, D.C., Kircher, J.C. (1983)

Detection of deception: Effectiveness of physical countermeasures under high motivation conditions

Psychophysiology With enhanced training, countermeasure subjects produced 47% false negative outcomes compared to 0% for guilty controls, demonstrating that simple physical countermeasures could effectively defeat the… Countermeasures Research [146] Honts, C. R., Hodes, R. L. (1983)

The detection of physical countermeasures

Polygraph Polygraph examiners detected only 12% of participants using physical countermeasures, with trained countermeasures proving difficult to detect through either physiological chart analysis or behavioral observation. Countermeasures Research [147] Gudjonsson, G. H. (1982)

Some psychological determinants of electrodermal responses to deception

Personality and Individual Differences No consistent relationships were found between personality traits (measured by Eysenck Personality Inventory, Gough Socialization Scale, and Arrow-Dot test) and detection accuracy. Instead, detectability related… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [148] Honts, C. R., Hodes, R. L. (1982)

The effects of multiple physical countermeasures on the detection of deception

Psychophysiology Enhanced countermeasure training enabled 47% of guilty subjects to produce false negative outcomes by augmenting physiological responses to control questions, with cardiovascular measures most affected… Countermeasures Research [149] Dawson, M.E. (1981)

Physiological detection of deception: Measurement of responses to questions and answers during countermeasure maneuvers

Psychophysiology Professional actors' mental countermeasures proved completely ineffective, with 100% of guilty subjects correctly detected and no false negatives. However, innocent subjects experienced false positive rates… Countermeasures Research [150] William M. Waid (1981)

Meprobamate Reduces Accuracy of Physiological Detection of Deception

Science Only 3 of 11 guilty subjects who took meprobamate were correctly identified as deceptive, compared to statistically significant detection rates in the placebo and no-pill… Countermeasures Research [151] William M. Waid (1981)

Cognitive, Social, and Personality Processes in the Physiological Detection of Deception

Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Polygraph detectability is shaped by multiple independent factors — including attentional processing, prior feedback, personality (socialization, electrodermal lability), birth order, and examiner-subject ethnicity — and… Foundational & Historical Research [152] Martin Theodore Orne (1981)

Meprobamate reduces the accuracy of physiological detection of deception

Science A standard 400 mg clinical dose of meprobamate rendered the electrodermal-based Guilty Knowledge Test unable to reliably distinguish deceptive from truthful subjects, while the examiner… Countermeasures Research [153] Laura I. Rovner; David C. Raskin; John C. Kircher (1979 • EXPERIMENTAL)

Validity of CQT in Laboratory Mock Crime Study

Psychophysiology One of the Utah group’s foundational mock crime experiments with 72 volunteers. Established the Federal Zone of Comparison technique validity using numerical scoring, with accuracy… Laboratory & Analog Studies [154] Laura I. Rovner; David C. Raskin; John C. Kircher (1979 • FOUNDATIONAL)

CQT Mock Crime Laboratory Study

Psychophysiology One of the earliest CQT mock crime studies from the Utah group. 72 student volunteers randomly assigned to guilty/innocent conditions with financial motivation bonus. Laboratory & Analog Studies [155] Rovner, L.I., Raskin, D.C., Kircher, J.C. (1979)

Effects of information and practice on detection of deception

Psychophysiology Detection accuracy remained robust across all experimental conditions, with detailed information about the CQT and practice having minimal impact on the ability to differentiate guilty… Countermeasures Research [156] Martin Theodore Orne (1972)

On the Detection of Deception: A Method for the Study of the Physiological Effects of Psychological Stimuli

Handbook of Psychophysiology Psychological rather than physiological variables are the primary determinants of differential physiological responsivity in deception detection; the GSR is the most reliable single laboratory discriminator;… Foundational & Historical Research [157] Davydov, E.M., Zharkov, K.S. (1970)

The polygraph and its use by the US special services

Higher committee's red label school State Security at the Council of Ministers of the USSR named after F.E. Dzerzhinsky, Special Department disciplines 2 The document represented an early Soviet intelligence assessment of American polygraph methods, predating the 1975 formal establishment of KGB Laboratory No. 30 for polygraph research… Foundational & Historical Research [158] David Thoreson Lykken (1960)

The validity of the guilty knowledge technique: the effects of faking

Journal of Applied Psychology No subject was able to defeat the objective GSR scoring system, yielding 100% correct classification accuracy — demonstrating that the GKT's memory-detection mechanism is highly… Concealed Information Test (CIT) [159] Reid, John E. (1945)

Simulated Blood Pressure Responses in Lie-Detector Tests and a Method for Their Detection

Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Reid demonstrated that muscular countermeasures could artificially distort cardiovascular readings and developed the first instrumented countermeasure detection system, which became standard in polygraph practice. Countermeasures Research