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Bruno J. Verschuere
Deception detection, Concealed Information Test, and forensic psychology
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About Bruno J. Verschuere
Bruno Verschuere is Professor of Forensic Psychology at the University of Amsterdam, where he has served as Head of the Department of Clinical Psychology since 2023 and was promoted to full professor in February 2025. His career includes serving as Associate Professor of Forensic Psychology at the University of Amsterdam (2011-2025) and as a Postdoctoral Researcher of the Research Foundation-Flanders (FWO) at Ghent University (2005-2011). His research focuses on deception, lie detection, psychopathy, forensic psychology, and memory detection.
Verschuere is internationally recognized for his pioneering work on the Concealed Information Test (CIT), particularly the reaction time-based CIT (RT-CIT). He co-edited the landmark book "Memory Detection: Theory and Application of the Concealed Information Test" (2011) with Gershon Ben-Shakhar and Ewout Meijer, which remains the definitive work on this approach. His early research examined whether enhanced responding to concealed information during polygraph examination is due to orienting or defensive responding, using mock crime experiments with psychophysiological measures. His work has shown that two paradigms show particular promise for deception detection: the RT-based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT), with its key strength being a low false positive rate, and the autobiographical Implicit Association Test (aIAT). More recently, he conducted an influential meta-analysis on the Verifiability Approach, finding that truth tellers provided more verifiable details than liars.
Verschuere is Associate Professor of Forensic Psychology at the University of Amsterdam and a Founding Member of the European consortium of Psychological Research on Deception Detection. He has been a prolific collaborator, working extensively with Ewout H. Meijer, Gershon Ben-Shakhar, Geert Crombez, Ernst H.W. Koster, and other leading researchers in deception detection. He co-edited the influential volume "Detecting Deception: Current Challenges and Cognitive Approaches" (2014) with Pär Anders Granhag and Aldert Vrij. His academic work is complemented by extensive experience working with partners from the field, including the Ministry of Justice and Security, forensic care institutions and numerous research centres, with hopes to strengthen these partnerships and develop new initiatives to bridge the gap between science and practice.
Verschuere's polygraph research connects to broader work in forensic psychology, clinical psychology, and cognitive neuroscience. His research on the Concealed Information Test investigates whether examinees recognize secret information, such as crime suspects recognizing critical crime details that only the culprit could know, offering a knowledge-based approach as an alternative to traditional stress-based lie detection. His work spans from fundamental psychophysiological research on orienting responses to applied studies on sex offender management, cognitive load in deception, and the use of machine learning for automated deception detection.
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Researchers who have co-authored studies with Bruno J. Verschuere.
Publications [61]
All peer-reviewed studies by Bruno J. Verschuere in our database.
Effective faking of verbal deception detection with target-aligned adversarial attacks
Target-aligned adversarial attacks using GPT-4 reduced both human and machine deception detection performance to chance levels (d = -0.07 to -0.04 for humans, 51% accuracy for machines). [002] 2025How Dutch legal professionals assess statement credibility: Evidence from a survey and an analysis of 518 court rulings on sexual abuse
[003] 2024 Psychological ResearchDiagnosing eyewitness identifications with reaction time‑based Concealed Information Test: The effect of viewpoint congruency between test and encoding
The RT-CIT demonstrated strong capacity to diagnose face recognition with effect sizes ranging from d = 0.63 to d = 0.91. Viewpoint congruency between encoding and testing produced inconsistent moderation… [004] 2024 Behavior Research MethodsAssessing partial errors via analog gaming keyboards in response conflict tasks: A proof-of-concept study with the concealed information test
Probe trials showed 2.93% partial errors versus 0.46% for irrelevant items, with strong statistical evidence (Bayes Factor = 275) supporting the detection of response conflict through gaming keyboards. [005] 2024 Applied Cognitive PsychologyDoes (Biasing) Nonverbal Information Deteriorate the Accuracy of the Take-the-Best Heuristic for Deception Detection?
The detailedness heuristic achieved accuracy rates of 60.9-71.8% compared to 52.6-56.9% for unguided judgments (d = 0.55-0.76), but strongly biasing nonverbal behavior reduced this advantage, demonstrating that even focused cue-based… [006] 2024 Legal and Criminological PsychologySome lie‐detection may actually be of forensic use: A comment on Brennen and Magnussen, Lie‐detection: What works
[007] 2023 Nature Human BehaviourThe use-the-best heuristic facilitates deception detection
The use-the-best heuristic focusing solely on statement detailedness significantly outperformed intuitive deception detection, achieving 65-70% accuracy compared to chance-level performance (50-52%) when using multiple cues. [008] 2022 PsychophysiologyCountering information leakage in the Concealed Information Test: The effects of item detailedness
The study tested whether item detailedness could counter information leakage effects in the CIT, investigating if more specific questions preserve detection accuracy while reducing false positives from contaminated innocents. [009] 2021Man versus Machine: Comparing manual with LIWC coding of perceptual and contextual details for verbal lie detection
When set to the same metric, neither manual nor LIWC coding outperformed the other in discriminating truthful from deceptive statements (effect sizes ranged from d = -0.09 to 0.89 for… [010] 2021 Applied Cognitive PsychologyDiscriminating deceptive from truthful statements using the verifiability approach: A meta-analysis
Truth-tellers provided significantly more verifiable details (d = 0.49) and a higher proportion of verifiable details (d = 0.49) than liars across 28 studies, with strongest effects in alibi scenarios.… [011] 2021 Applied Cognitive PsychologyThe verifiability approach to deception detection: A preregistered direct replication of the information protocol condition of Nahari, Vrij, and Fisher (2014b)
Truth tellers provided significantly more verifiable details than liars (d = 0.49), confirming the Verifiability Approach prediction, but the effect was less than half the original study's magnitude and smaller… [012] 2021 Journal of Applied Research in Memory and CognitionHow Vulnerable is the Reaction Time Concealed Information Test to Faking?
Without response deadlines, the RT-CIT was vulnerable to faking (d = 1.06-1.08), but implementation of an 800ms response deadline rendered faking completely ineffective (d = −0.25 to −0.56), with guilty… [013] 2021 Acta PsychologicaHow humans impair automated deception detection performance
Machine learning alone achieved 69% accuracy in detecting deception, but human involvement through hybrid decision-making reduced performance to chance level (50%), demonstrating that human judgment impaired rather than enhanced automated… [014] 2020The Picture Superiority Effect in Memory Detection: Modality Effects in the Concealed Information Test
Pictorially encoded crime details were easier to detect than verbally encoded details. Items encoded and tested in the same modality showed better detection. Verbally encoded items could not be detected… [015] 2019Being accurate about verbal credibility assessment
[016] 2019 Psychological ResearchReaction time-based Concealed Information Test in eyewitness identification is moderated by picture similarity but not eyewitness cooperation
RT-CIT effectiveness was significantly impaired when using closely matched faces (as required for fair lineups) compared to non-matched faces, but eyewitness cooperativeness did not affect test performance. [017] 2019 Applied Cognitive PsychologyTesting a potential alternative to traditional identification procedures: Reaction time-based concealed information test does not work for lineups with cooperative witnesses
The RT-CIT demonstrated negligibly small diagnostic validity (d = 0.14, 95% CI 0.08-0.19) across five experiments, failing to effectively identify perpetrators when eyewitnesses were cooperative rather than attempting to conceal… [018] 2019 PLoS ONEBeing accurate about accuracy in verbal deception detection
Training set optimization dramatically overestimates accuracy in verbal deception detection, with the effect being most severe in small samples where completely non-diagnostic tools can appear to achieve above-chance performance. [019] 2018 Applied Cognitive PsychologyAutomated Verbal Credibility Assessment of Intentions: The Model Statement Technique and Predictive Modeling
Machine learning classification achieved 80% accuracy in initial testing but dropped to 63% in independent validation, with liars paradoxically including more person and location references than truth-tellers. [020] 2018 Applied Cognitive PsychologyThe first direct replication on using verbal credibility assessment for the detection of deceptive intentions
[021] 2017 Oxford Scholarship OnlineDetection Deception Using Psychophysiological and Neural Measures
[022] 2017 Journal of Forensic SciencesUsing named entities for computer-automated verbal deception detection
Named entities discriminated truthful from deceptive hotel reviews with AUC values of 0.59-0.63, outperforming lexicon-based word counting (LIWC) and sentence specificity measures. Dates, money references, and numerical details were the… [023] 2016 Journal of Forensic SciencesID-Check: Online Concealed Information Test Reveals True Identity
The online ID-Check achieved near-perfect diagnostic accuracy with AUC = 0.98 and overall accuracy ranging from 86-94% in detecting individuals attempting to conceal their true identity, demonstrating that web-based memory… [024] 2016 Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Computational Approaches to Deception DetectionUsing the verifiability of details as a test of deception: A conceptual framework for the automation of the verifiability approach
The paper provides theoretical and methodological blueprints for automating verifiability coding through LIWC-based linguistic analysis and rule-based named entity recognition, establishing a foundation for computational approaches to the Verifiability Approach… [025] 2016 PsychophysiologyDeception detection with behavioral, autonomic, and neural measures: conceptual and methodological considerations that warrant modesty
The review identified significant conceptual clarity issues and methodological problems across deception detection paradigms, particularly challenging the oversold promises of neuroimaging-based lie detection technologies. [026] 2015 Journal of Applied Research in Memory and CognitionRT-Based Memory Detection: Item Saliency Effects in the Single-Probe and the Multiple-Probe Protocol
The multiple-probe protocol significantly outperformed the single-probe protocol across both settings, and high salient items (e.g., first name) were detected better than low salient items in the laboratory study, demonstrating… [027] 2015 PsycTESTS DatasetDeception Task--Adapted Version
Children with implanted false memories were faster to confirm than deny statements about false events, providing evidence that implanted false memories reflect actual memory traces rather than mere compliance. [028] 2015 Psychological ResearchLie, truth, lie: the role of task switching in a deception context
Error and reaction time switch costs were equally large for switching from truth-telling to lying and from lying to truth-telling, demonstrating that task switching does not uniquely contribute to the… [029] 2015 Detecting DeceptionDetecting deception through reaction times
The RT-based Concealed Information Test demonstrates exceptionally low false positive rates and large effect sizes (d = 0.97-1.55) for detecting concealed information. The autobiographical IAT achieves over 90% accuracy in… [030] 2015 Clinical Psychology: Science and PracticeDetecting Deception: Current Challenges and Cognitive Approaches
Cognitive approaches successfully detected simulation across multiple clinical domains by examining knowledge accuracy and strategic behavior patterns. Detection success depends on the extent of the deceiver's knowledge about the condition… [031] 2015 Journal of Applied Research in Memory and CognitionRT-based memory detection: Item saliency effects in the one probe and multiple probe protocol
The multiple-probe protocol consistently outperformed the single-probe protocol, and pronounced item saliency differences affected RT-CIT validity in laboratory conditions, though the saliency effect was attenuated in online testing where manipulation… [032] 2015 Journal of Applied Research in Memory and CognitionRT-Based Memory Detection: Item Saliency Effects in the Single-Probe and Multiple-Probe Protocol
The multiple-probe protocol outperformed the single-probe protocol in both laboratory and internet studies. High salient items were better detected than low salient items in controlled laboratory settings, though this effect… [033] 2015 PLoS OneMemory Detection 2.0: The First Web-Based Memory Detection Test
Reaction times successfully detected concealed autobiographical information with accuracy well above chance, performing better than error rates. Memory detection was significantly more successful for high salient items than low salient… [034] 2015 Alcohol and AlcoholismIn vino veritas? Alcohol, response inhibition and lying
Alcohol significantly impaired response inhibition (longer stop-signal reaction times with higher BAC) but had no effect on the cognitive costs of lying, challenging the theory that inhibitory control is critical… [035] 2015 PsychophysiologyUsing pretest data to screen low-reactivity individuals in the autonomic-based concealed information test
Pretest screening significantly improved the diagnostic value of the mock-crime CIT, though it led to a substantial number of undiagnosed participants (33.6%), suggesting a trade-off between accuracy and inclusiveness. [036] 2015 In Granhag et al. (Eds.), Detecting DeceptionThe polygraph: Current practice and new approaches
The review highlighted ongoing debates about polygraph accuracy and identified the Concealed Information Test as a potentially more scientifically sound alternative to traditional Control Question Tests. [037] 2013 Acta PsychologicaReaction time measures in deception research: Comparing the effects of irrelevant and relevant stimulus–response compatibility
Relevant SRC tasks yielded substantial compatibility effects for deception detection while irrelevant SRC tasks showed no significant effects, with results replicated across different stimulus features. RT measures successfully differentiated both… [038] 2013 Cognitive NeurodynamicsA comment on Farwell (2012): brain fingerprinting: a comprehensive tutorial review of detection of concealed information with event-related brain potentials
Of the studies cited by Farwell to support brain fingerprinting's perfect accuracy, only one peer-reviewed laboratory study with 20 participants and two small field studies (4 and 6 participants) met… [039] 2013 Applied Cognitive PsychologyPredicting the sensitivity of the reaction time-based concealed information test
Target-irrelevant response patterns effectively predicted individual CIT sensitivity, improving discrimination accuracy from 86% to 97% hit rate (ROC AUC 0.95) and increasing effect size from d = 1.25 to d… [040] 2012 Frontiers in PsychologyLearning to lie: Effects of practice on the cognitive cost of lying
Frequent liars showed a 53 ms lie-effect during training, compared to 239 ms for frequent truth-tellers, but training effects did not generalize to unpracticed items in the test phase, suggesting… [041] 2012 Acta PsychologicaLying and executive control: An experimental investigation using ego depletion and goal neglect
Goal neglect induced by long RSI (5-8 seconds) significantly increased the cognitive cost of lying compared to short RSI (0.2 seconds), but ego depletion manipulation had no reliable effect on… [042] 2012 Frontiers in Human NeuroscienceDoes the inferior frontal sulcus play a functional role in deception? A neuronavigated theta-burst transcranial magnetic stimulation study
[043] 2011 In: Memory detection: Theory and application of the concealed information testDetecting concealed information in less than a second: Response latency-based measures
The oddball task, which manipulates stimulus-response compatibility, produces exceptional effect sizes (d = 1.97 for reaction times), comparable to traditional skin conductance measures (d = 1.46), while tasks lacking this… [044] 2011 • REVIEW BookMemory Detection: Theory and Application of the Concealed Information Test (Book)
Comprehensive edited volume with contributions from leading CIT researchers worldwide. Covered theoretical foundations, laboratory research, field applications in Japan, countermeasures, and legal issues. [045] 2011 Consciousness and CognitionThe ease of lying
[046] 2011 Memory Detection: Theory and Application of the Concealed Information TestPractical guidelines for developing a CIT
Central crime details directly related to crime execution are recalled at 90.2% compared to only 65.9% for peripheral details. Guidelines emphasize selecting information present in perpetrator memory but unknown to… [047] 2010 The Open Criminology JournalDetecting Criminal Intent with the Concealed Information Test
[048] 2010 Journal of Forensic Psychology PracticeThe Polygraph and the Detection of Deception
The CQT detects deception better than chance but with significant error rates, contrasting sharply with industry claims of 98% accuracy. The CIT demonstrates superior validity with effect sizes around .82… [049] 2009 Applied Psychophysiology and BiofeedbackDifferentiating orienting and defensive responses to concealed information: The role of verbalization
When CIT participants remained silent rather than giving verbal responses, heart rate showed the deceleration predicted by orienting theory, confirming that verbal responding is responsible for the initial heart rate… [050] 2009 Applied Cognitive PsychologyDetecting concealed information with reaction times: Validity and comparison with the polygraph
Both the RT-based CIT and the polygraph-based CIT successfully discriminated between concealed and control autobiographical information, with similarly high effect sizes, supporting the RT-CIT as a valid and practical alternative… [051] 2009 International Journal of PsychophysiologyThe validity of finger pulse line length for the detection of concealed information
[052] 2008 International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 31(5), 423–429Sex Offender Management Using the Polygraph: A Critical Review
Critical evaluation of PCSOT effectiveness. Acknowledged that PCSOT reliably elicits increased disclosures but questioned whether increased disclosure translates to reduced recidivism. Called the polygraph an effective “truth facilitator.” [053] 2008 Physiology & BehaviorThe Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique: it's just not science. A critique to Mangan, Armitage, and Adams (2008)
The critique identified fundamental methodological flaws including confession-based ground truth creating sampling bias, untested theoretical foundations (psychological set), bias against innocent examinees in scoring rules, and unsupported claims of countermeasure… [054] 2008Skin conductance and heart rate in deception detection
[055] 2007 Biological PsychologyStartling secrets: Startle eye blink modulation by concealed crime information
Reduced startle modulation to crime pictures occurred only when participants inhibited physiological responding, suggesting that both orienting and inhibition processes contribute to CIT effects, challenging the dominant orienting-only theoretical framework. [056] 2006 Psychologica BelgicaPsychopathy and Physiological Detection of Concealed Information: A review
Reduced orienting responses in high antisocial individuals threaten CIT validity, with autonomic hyporesponsivity responsible for decreased detection in antisocial personalities, while emotional detachment and antisocial behavior dimensions show distinct psychophysiological… [057] 2006 Behavior Research MethodsPsychophysiological analysis (PSPHA): A modular script based program for analyzing psychophysiological data
PSPHA successfully provides a free, flexible platform for analyzing biosignals including skin conductance, ECG, respiration, and EMG with VBScript-based modularity allowing user customization for specific experimental needs. [058] 2005 Psychologica BelgicaBehavioural responding to concealed information: Examining the role of relevance orienting
[059] 2005 PsychophysiologyPsychopathic traits and autonomic responding to concealed information in a prison sample
Prisoners scoring high on the Impulsive Antisociality factor (PPI-II) of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory exhibited reduced electrodermal responding to concealed information, indicating that CIT sensitivity may be decreased in antisocial… [060] 2004 Cognition & EmotionOrienting to guilty knowledge
Probe response times were significantly slower on guilty knowledge trials than neutral trials across all three experiments, demonstrating that crime-relevant stimuli produce a general interruption of attentional processing — confirming… [061] 2002 • IMPLICIT MEASURES PsychophysiologyDetecting Deception with Implicit Behavioral Measures
Explored implicit measures (reaction times, IAT) as supplements to physiological deception detection. Found promising but modest detection rates, suggesting potential as auxiliary measures.Explore all research.
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