From the Reid technique to the PEACE model, interrogation has evolved dramatically. This guide compares modern approaches and where the lie detector test fits alongside them.
From the accusatory Reid Technique to the rapport-based PEACE model and memory-enhancing cognitive interviewing, modern interrogation methods have transformed dramatically. This comprehensive guide examines every major approach, their scientific foundations, effectiveness, and how polygraph testing integrates with the investigative interview process.
TL;DR — The Short Version
- The Reid Technique has dominated U.S. interrogation training for decades, with over 500,000 professionals trained since 1974, but faces growing criticism for false confession risks.
- The PEACE model — a non-accusatory framework developed in the UK in the early 1990s — emphasizes rapport, open questioning, and evidence evaluation, and has been adopted across multiple countries as an ethical alternative.
- Cognitive interviewing, developed by Geiselman and Fisher in 1984 and validated by a landmark meta-analysis of 46 studies, produces significantly more correct details than standard police interviews.
- The Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) technique achieved 85.4% deception detection accuracy in a training study — far above the 56.1% baseline for untrained interviewers.
- Wicklander-Zulawski & Associates stopped teaching the Reid Technique in March 2017, signaling a major industry shift toward non-confrontational methods.
- Ten states have banned police deception during juvenile interrogations, starting with Illinois and Oregon in 2021.
- Polygraph testing, with validated accuracy rates of approximately 89% for event-specific tests, serves as a valuable complementary investigative tool alongside interviewing.
Who This Guide Is For
- Law enforcement officers seeking best practices in interrogation and interviewing
- Criminal defense attorneys evaluating whether confessions were properly obtained
- Polygraph examiners who conduct pre-test and post-test interviews
- Criminal justice students and researchers studying interview methodology
- Prosecutors preparing cases involving confession evidence
- Intelligence analysts and security professionals involved in interviewing
- Human resources professionals conducting workplace investigations
Historical Evolution of Interrogation Methods
From Physical Coercion to Psychological Science
The history of interrogation stretches back centuries, evolving from crude physical coercion to sophisticated psychological methodologies grounded in behavioral science. Understanding this evolution is essential for appreciating the current landscape of investigative interviewing and how techniques like polygraph testing have become integrated into the process [1]Verified From Ancient Oracles to Modern Techniques: The Evolution of Deception Detection and the Benefits of Investigative Interviewing
Documents how early deception detection methods established foundations for modern techniques, with contemporary approaches like SUE showing superior results. As documented in research on the evolution of deception detection, contemporary approaches like the Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) show superior results compared to earlier methods [1]Verified From Ancient Oracles to Modern Techniques: The Evolution of Deception Detection and the Benefits of Investigative Interviewing
Documents how early deception detection methods established foundations for modern techniques, with contemporary approaches like SUE showing superior results.
In early American law enforcement, interrogation was largely informal and frequently brutal. The so-called "third degree" — physical violence used to compel confessions — was standard practice in many police departments through the early 20th century [2]Verified Leading Interview and Interrogation Techniques: Focus on Cognitive Interview
Confirms cognitive interview is scientifically validated as one of the best tools to obtain information suitable for legal proceedings from victims, witnesses, or suspects. The Wickersham Commission (officially the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement), appointed by President Herbert Hoover in 1929, published its landmark report in 1931 documenting widespread police brutality during interrogations across the United States [8]Verified Wickersham Commission Report: Lawlessness in Law Enforcement
Documents the 1931 report on widespread police brutality and third degree tactics during interrogations across the United States. The Commission's volume entitled "Lawlessness in Law Enforcement" described the widespread use of the third degree and shocked the nation [8]Verified Wickersham Commission Report: Lawlessness in Law Enforcement
Documents the 1931 report on widespread police brutality and third degree tactics during interrogations across the United States.
The legal framework began shifting with pivotal Supreme Court decisions. Brown v. Mississippi (1936) was the first case in which the Supreme Court reversed state court criminal convictions that rested upon coerced confessions, establishing that confessions obtained through physical torture violated the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment [9]Verified Brown v. Mississippi, 297 U.S. 278 (1936)
Confirms Brown v. Mississippi established that confessions obtained through physical torture violated the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Ashcraft v. Tennessee (1944) addressed psychological coercion, and most famously Miranda v. Arizona (1966) established the requirement that suspects be informed of their constitutional rights before custodial interrogation [10]Verified Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966)
Confirms Miranda v. Arizona referenced the Reid Technique and that the technique was noted in the landmark decision. Notably, the Reid Technique's textbook was specifically referenced by the Supreme Court in Miranda as an example of the psychologically coercive techniques the ruling sought to address [10]Verified Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966)
Confirms Miranda v. Arizona referenced the Reid Technique and that the technique was noted in the landmark decision.
The mid-20th century saw the emergence of formalized interrogation training. John E. Reid, a former Chicago police officer and polygraph examiner, developed what would become the dominant interrogation methodology in North America [11]Verified Lie Detection: Its History, Methods and Techniques
Early comprehensive account documenting the Reid approach to lie detection and criminal interrogation techniques. John E. Reid and Associates was founded in 1947, and Reid's approach represented a paradigm shift from physical coercion to psychological techniques [12]Verified Reid Technique — Structure and History
Confirms the Reid Technique was developed in the 1950s by John E. Reid, a polygraph expert and former Chicago police officer. For a deeper understanding of Reid's pivotal contributions, see our profile on Fred Inbau and the development of forensic interrogation science.
By the late 1980s and early 1990s, a counter-movement emerged, particularly in the United Kingdom. The wrongful convictions of the Guildford Four (convicted 22 October 1975, released 19 October 1989), the Birmingham Six (convicted 1975, convictions quashed 14 March 1991), and the Maguire Seven (convicted 4 March 1976, convictions quashed 1991) — cases in which coerced confessions played a central role — prompted the British government to fundamentally rethink police interviewing practices [13]Verified Guildford Four and Maguire Seven
Confirms conviction dates (Guildford Four: 22 October 1975), exoneration (19 October 1989), and Maguire Seven details. These miscarriages of justice led to the Royal Commission on Criminal Justice and ultimately to the development of the PEACE model.
Today, the field continues to evolve rapidly. The High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG), established by President Obama in 2009 and funded by the FBI, CIA, and Department of Defense, has supported over a hundred peer-reviewed studies spanning psychology, linguistics, and communication science [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009. The HIG represents the most significant evidence base ever assembled on interrogation effectiveness, and its findings consistently support rapport-based approaches over confrontational methods [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009.
The Reid Technique: Structure, Process & Criticism
Origins and Development
The Reid Technique was developed in the 1950s by John E. Reid and formalized in the 1962 textbook Criminal Interrogation and Confessions, co-authored with Fred Inbau [11]Verified Lie Detection: Its History, Methods and Techniques
Early comprehensive account documenting the Reid approach to lie detection and criminal interrogation techniques[12]Verified Reid Technique — Structure and History
Confirms the Reid Technique was developed in the 1950s by John E. Reid, a polygraph expert and former Chicago police officer. It is the most influential interrogation methodology in American law enforcement history. According to the company's website, over 500,000 law enforcement and security professionals have attended Reid's training programs since they were first offered in 1974 [15]Verified Interrogation Techniques — Connecticut General Assembly Report
Confirms over 500,000 professionals trained in Reid since 1974 and details the three-phase structure of the technique. To understand the foundational partnership between these two pioneers, see our detailed analysis of the Reid and Inbau partnership that defined American interrogation.
Reid himself was a polygraph examiner, and the technique's origins are deeply intertwined with polygraph research and practice [11]Verified Lie Detection: Its History, Methods and Techniques
Early comprehensive account documenting the Reid approach to lie detection and criminal interrogation techniques. Fred Inbau had worked at the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory (SCDL), set up in 1929, and became its director after it was sold by Northwestern University to the Chicago police in 1938 [16]Verified Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation
Confirms nine steps of interrogation, three-phase structure, and Supreme Court recognition in Missouri v. Seibert (2004). Reid developed his approach based on observations during thousands of polygraph pre-test and post-test interviews, noting behavioral patterns he associated with truthful versus deceptive individuals. This connection between polygraph testing and interrogation methodology grounded the technique in systematic observation, though some of the behavioral assumptions later proved scientifically questionable. For practitioners exploring polygraph-adjacent interview approaches, the PEAK Interviewing Course provides 40 hours of nonconfrontational training.
The Three-Phase Structure
The Reid Technique operates through three distinct phases [16]Verified Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation
Confirms nine steps of interrogation, three-phase structure, and Supreme Court recognition in Missouri v. Seibert (2004):
Phase 1 — Fact Analysis: Before any interview, investigators conduct thorough analysis of case facts, physical evidence, witness statements, and forensic data. The investigator develops a theory of the case and identifies potential subjects. Factual analysis relies on crime scene analysis and information learned about each suspect, including opportunity and access, attitude, motivation, and biographical information [16]Verified Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation
Confirms nine steps of interrogation, three-phase structure, and Supreme Court recognition in Missouri v. Seibert (2004).
Phase 2 — Behavior Analysis Interview (BAI): This non-accusatory interview observes the subject's verbal and nonverbal behavior while asking investigative and behavior-provoking questions. The BAI is designed to provide objective criteria to render an opinion about the suspect's truthfulness [16]Verified Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation
Confirms nine steps of interrogation, three-phase structure, and Supreme Court recognition in Missouri v. Seibert (2004). However, research by Aldert Vrij and others has raised important questions about the reliability of behavioral cue analysis.
Phase 3 — The Nine Steps of Interrogation: If the investigator determines deception during the BAI, they proceed to the nine-step interrogation, which is explicitly accusatory. These nine steps are: (1) Positive Confrontation, (2) Theme Development, (3) Handling Denials, (4) Overcoming Objections, (5) Procurement and Retention of Suspect's Attention, (6) Handling the Suspect's Passive Mood, (7) Presenting an Alternative Question, (8) Developing the Details of the Offense, and (9) Converting an Oral Confession to a Written Statement [16]Verified Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation
Confirms nine steps of interrogation, three-phase structure, and Supreme Court recognition in Missouri v. Seibert (2004). This structured progression is designed to psychologically move the suspect from denial to admission. In June 2004, the U.S. Supreme Court in Missouri v. Seibert recognized John E. Reid and Associates as a law enforcement training resource that properly teaches the advisement of Miranda rights [17]Verified The Reid Technique — Celebrating 77 Years of Excellence
Confirms Reid & Associates founded in 1947 and Inbau's role at the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory.
Criticism and the Industry Shift Toward Non-Confrontational Methods
The Reid Technique has faced mounting criticism from the scientific community and within the law enforcement training industry itself. The most significant concerns center on several key issues.
Behavioral analysis unreliability is one major concern. A comprehensive meta-analysis by Bond and DePaulo (2006), synthesizing research from 206 documents and 24,483 judges, found that human accuracy in detecting deception from behavioral cues averages only about 54% — barely above chance [18]Verified Accuracy of Deception Judgments
Meta-analysis of 206 documents and 24,483 judges finding average 54% accuracy in lie-truth judgments, barely above chance. This finding highlights why scientific tools like polygraph testing, with validated accuracy rates approaching 89% for event-specific examinations, offer such a significant advantage [7]Verified Meta-Analytic Survey of Criterion Accuracy of Validated Polygraph Techniques
Reports approximately 89% accuracy for specific-incident criminal investigations and 85% for screening applications.
The most seismic shift in the industry came in March 2017, when Wicklander-Zulawski & Associates (WZ) — which had trained more than 200,000 law enforcement officers worldwide since 1982 — announced it would stop teaching the Reid Technique [5]Verified Wicklander-Zulawski Discontinues Reid Method Instruction After More Than 30 Years
Confirms WZ stopped teaching the Reid Technique in March 2017, citing false confession risks. WZ had been licensed to teach the Reid Method for 33 years [5]Verified Wicklander-Zulawski Discontinues Reid Method Instruction After More Than 30 Years
Confirms WZ stopped teaching the Reid Technique in March 2017, citing false confession risks. WZ President and CEO Shane Sturman stated that "confrontation is not an effective way of getting truthful information" and the company shifted to teaching non-confrontational, rapport-based methods including the Participatory Method, Cognitive Interviewing, and Fact-Finding and Selective Interviewing [5]Verified Wicklander-Zulawski Discontinues Reid Method Instruction After More Than 30 Years
Confirms WZ stopped teaching the Reid Technique in March 2017, citing false confession risks. This decision signaled a broader industry shift that continues to gain momentum. For an in-depth look at the ethical implications of interrogation tactics for polygraph professionals, see our guide on deceptive interrogation tactics and ethics for polygraph examiners.
Ten states have now passed laws banning police deception during juvenile interrogations, starting with Illinois and Oregon in 2021 [6]Verified It's Legal for Police to Use Deception in Interrogations. Advocates Want That to End
Confirms ten states have banned police deception during juvenile interrogations, starting with Illinois in 2021. These states include California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Virginia [19]Verified Fact Sheet: Deception Bans in Juvenile Interrogations
Confirms ten state legislatures have banned deception during juvenile interrogations and lists all ten states. In August 2024, the American Bar Association enacted Resolution 517 urging all remaining state legislatures to do the same [19]Verified Fact Sheet: Deception Bans in Juvenile Interrogations
Confirms ten state legislatures have banned deception during juvenile interrogations and lists all ten states. Some advocates are now pushing for bans that would extend to adult interrogations as well [6]Verified It's Legal for Police to Use Deception in Interrogations. Advocates Want That to End
Confirms ten states have banned police deception during juvenile interrogations, starting with Illinois in 2021.
The PEACE Model: Ethical Investigative Interviewing
Origins in the United Kingdom
The PEACE model emerged from one of the most consequential reform efforts in criminal investigation history. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the United Kingdom was rocked by high-profile wrongful convictions in which police coercion and fabricated confessions played central roles [13]Verified Guildford Four and Maguire Seven
Confirms conviction dates (Guildford Four: 22 October 1975), exoneration (19 October 1989), and Maguire Seven details.
The Guildford Four were convicted on 22 October 1975 at the Old Bailey for IRA bombings and sentenced to life imprisonment based on confessions later proven to be coerced through torture and intimidation [13]Verified Guildford Four and Maguire Seven
Confirms conviction dates (Guildford Four: 22 October 1975), exoneration (19 October 1989), and Maguire Seven details. They were cleared of all charges and released on 19 October 1989 after nearly 15 years behind bars [13]Verified Guildford Four and Maguire Seven
Confirms conviction dates (Guildford Four: 22 October 1975), exoneration (19 October 1989), and Maguire Seven details. The Birmingham Six were sentenced to life imprisonment in 1975 for the 1974 Birmingham pub bombings; their convictions were quashed on 14 March 1991 after new evidence exposed major flaws in police evidence and the unreliability of forensic tests used at trial [20]Verified Birmingham Six — Wrongful Conviction
Confirms Birmingham Six convictions quashed on 14 March 1991. The Maguire Seven were convicted on 4 March 1976 of possessing explosives; their convictions were quashed in 1991 [13]Verified Guildford Four and Maguire Seven
Confirms conviction dates (Guildford Four: 22 October 1975), exoneration (19 October 1989), and Maguire Seven details. For context on a modern case involving false accusations and how polygraph can help, see our guide on how a UK polygraph test can clear your name.
These miscarriages of justice led to the enactment of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) in 1984 and prompted a fundamental rethinking of police interviewing [21]Verified Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) and PEACE Origins
Confirms the turning point for UK investigative interviewing came with PACE in 1984. The PEACE model was developed collaboratively in the early 1990s by law enforcement professionals and academic psychologists — notably Tom Williamson, a senior detective, and psychologists Ray Bull and Eric Shepherd [22]Verified PEACE Model Development and Collaborative Framework
Confirms PEACE was developed in the early 1990s as a collaborative effort between law enforcement and psychologists in England and Wales. In 1993, the PEACE Training Model was introduced for police use in England and Wales [23]Verified Introduction to PEACE Investigative Interviewing — Prof. Ray Bull
Confirms PEACE Training Model was introduced in 1993 for police use in England and Wales, and Ray Bull's role. Ray Bull was elected an Honorary Fellow of the British Psychological Society in 2010 for his contribution to the discipline of psychology [23]Verified Introduction to PEACE Investigative Interviewing — Prof. Ray Bull
Confirms PEACE Training Model was introduced in 1993 for police use in England and Wales, and Ray Bull's role. The PEACE model represented a radical departure from accusatory traditions.
The Five Phases of PEACE
PEACE is an acronym representing five sequential phases of the investigative interview [22]Verified PEACE Model Development and Collaborative Framework
Confirms PEACE was developed in the early 1990s as a collaborative effort between law enforcement and psychologists in England and Wales:
Preparation and Planning: The interviewer thoroughly reviews all available evidence, develops an interview strategy, identifies key points to cover, and prepares the physical environment. This includes considering the interviewee's background and vulnerabilities, and developing multiple hypotheses to avoid tunnel vision [22]Verified PEACE Model Development and Collaborative Framework
Confirms PEACE was developed in the early 1990s as a collaborative effort between law enforcement and psychologists in England and Wales.
Engage and Explain: The interviewer establishes rapport, explains the purpose and process of the interview, and ensures the interviewee understands their legal rights. This stage is described in the research literature as the most influential aspect in whether or not an interview is successful [24]Verified PEACE Method of Interrogation
Confirms PEACE adoption in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and Canada (RCMP adoption in 2015). It involves showing concern for the subject's welfare by asking personalized questions and giving reassurance if the person seems anxious [24]Verified PEACE Method of Interrogation
Confirms PEACE adoption in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and Canada (RCMP adoption in 2015).
Account: Using open-ended questions, active listening, and evidence disclosure strategies, the interviewer obtains the interviewee's full account. The cognitive interview technique may be incorporated for witness interviews. Inconsistencies are challenged in a measured, non-accusatory manner.
Closure: The interview is brought to a professional close with a summary, opportunity to add or correct information, and explanation of next steps.
Evaluate: The interviewer critically evaluates the information obtained, assesses reliability against other evidence, and identifies further investigative actions.
Under the PEACE model, the term 'interrogation' is intentionally replaced with the term 'investigative interview' as the approach is based on a humane and ethical framework [25]Verified The PEACE Model of Investigative Interviewing (Memorial University)
Confirms PEACE model intentionally replaces 'interrogation' with 'investigative interview' and details the humane ethical framework.
Research on PEACE Effectiveness and Global Adoption
Research evaluating the effectiveness of the PEACE model has produced encouraging results. Walsh and Bull (2010), in their pioneering study published in Legal and Criminological Psychology, examined 142 interviews with suspects and found that better PEACE interviewing was associated with securing a greater number of comprehensive accounts, including admissions and confessions [26]Verified What Really is Effective in Interviews with Suspects? (Walsh & Bull)
Confirms PEACE interviewing associated with more comprehensive accounts and better interview outcomes. Interviews rated at or above PEACE standard in rapport maintenance were three times as likely to achieve positive outcomes [26]Verified What Really is Effective in Interviews with Suspects? (Walsh & Bull)
Confirms PEACE interviewing associated with more comprehensive accounts and better interview outcomes.
Clarke and Milne (2001) conducted a national evaluation of the PEACE investigative interviewing course for the Home Office (Police Research Award Scheme Report No. 149), evaluating interview quality across English and Welsh police forces. While the evaluation found that training transfer varied, it documented meaningful improvements in core interviewing skills and the elimination of previously common coercive malpractices [27]Verified National Evaluation of the PEACE Investigative Interviewing Course
National evaluation of PEACE training across English and Welsh police forces, Home Office report PRAS No. 149.
As of 2017, the PEACE model has been adopted by law enforcement agencies in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Portugal, and parts of Canada [24]Verified PEACE Method of Interrogation
Confirms PEACE adoption in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and Canada (RCMP adoption in 2015)[28]Verified PEACE Model Global Adoption
Confirms PEACE adopted in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and parts of Canada as of November 2017. In 2015, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police adopted a new standard influenced by the PEACE model [28]Verified PEACE Model Global Adoption
Confirms PEACE adopted in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and parts of Canada as of November 2017. For context on how Canadian law enforcement has historically integrated polygraph and interviewing, see our history of polygraph in the RCMP. Norway developed its own adaptation called the KREATIV model, and Indonesia developed the POAC model (Planning, Organising, Actuating and Controlling) [29]Verified CTI — Police Interviewing and International PEACE Adaptations
Confirms Norwegian KREATIV model, Indonesian POAC model, and UN Special Rapporteur call for universal protocol in 2016. In October 2016, former UN Special Rapporteur on torture Juan E. Méndez called for the development of a universal protocol on non-coercive interviewing methods [29]Verified CTI — Police Interviewing and International PEACE Adaptations
Confirms Norwegian KREATIV model, Indonesian POAC model, and UN Special Rapporteur call for universal protocol in 2016, and Ray Bull's research helped underpin that initiative.
Cognitive Interviewing: Memory-Enhanced Techniques
Scientific Foundations and Core Techniques
Cognitive interviewing (CI) was developed in 1984 by psychologists R. Edward Geiselman and Ronald Fisher and their colleagues in response to ineffective police interviewing techniques used at the time [30]Verified Cognitive Interview — Development and Validation
Confirms cognitive interviews developed in 1984 by Geiselman, Fisher and colleagues with four core retrieval techniques. Unlike methods designed primarily for suspects, cognitive interviewing was created specifically to enhance memory recall in cooperative witnesses and victims. The technique is grounded in well-established principles of cognitive psychology — specifically, the encoding specificity principle and the multi-component model of memory trace [30]Verified Cognitive Interview — Development and Validation
Confirms cognitive interviews developed in 1984 by Geiselman, Fisher and colleagues with four core retrieval techniques.
As validated in peer-reviewed research published in the European Polygraph journal, the cognitive interview is scientifically proven as one of the best tools to obtain information suitable for legal proceedings and can be applied with victims, witnesses, or suspects [3]Verified Leading Interview and Interrogation Techniques: Focus on Cognitive Interview
Validates cognitive interview as scientifically proven technique for information gathering suitable for legal proceedings.
The original cognitive interview consists of four core memory-retrieval techniques [30]Verified Cognitive Interview — Development and Validation
Confirms cognitive interviews developed in 1984 by Geiselman, Fisher and colleagues with four core retrieval techniques: Mental Reinstatement of Context (recreating the environment and emotional state at the time of the event), Report Everything (instructing witnesses to report all details regardless of perceived importance), Change Temporal Order (recalling in different chronological sequences to access additional details), and Change Perspective (recalling from different spatial or psychological viewpoints).
The Enhanced Cognitive Interview and Meta-Analytic Validation
In 1992, Fisher and Geiselman published an expanded version called the Enhanced Cognitive Interview (ECI), which added social and communicative elements including explicit rapport-building, transferring control to the witness, using open-ended questions, and matching the witness's pace and language [31]Verified Memory Enhancing Techniques for Investigative Interviewing: The Cognitive Interview
Confirms Fisher and Geiselman published Enhanced Cognitive Interview training manual in 1992 with 45% improvement in recall. The revised version showed an increase of 45 percent in correct information retrieved compared to the original [30]Verified Cognitive Interview — Development and Validation
Confirms cognitive interviews developed in 1984 by Geiselman, Fisher and colleagues with four core retrieval techniques. The ECI has become the standard version used in law enforcement training worldwide.
A landmark meta-analysis by Memon, Meissner, and Fraser (2010), published in Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, examined 46 published articles covering 25 years of CI research, comprising 57 published articles with 65 experiments [32]Verified The Cognitive Interview: A Meta-Analytic Review and Study Space Analysis of the Past 25 Years
Meta-analysis of 46 published articles confirming significant increase in correct details from cognitive interview with small increase in errors. The meta-analysis replicated earlier findings with a large and significant increase in correct details produced by the cognitive interview compared to standard interviews, with only a small increase in errors [32]Verified The Cognitive Interview: A Meta-Analytic Review and Study Space Analysis of the Past 25 Years
Meta-analysis of 46 published articles confirming significant increase in correct details from cognitive interview with small increase in errors. This robust evidence base has made the cognitive interview one of the most thoroughly validated interview techniques available to law enforcement.
Research from Geiselman, Fisher, MacKinnon, and Holland (1985) compared the cognitive interview with standard police interviews and hypnosis, finding that the average number of correctly recalled facts for the cognitive interview was 41.2, compared to 38.0 for hypnosis and 29.4 for the standard interview [30]Verified Cognitive Interview — Development and Validation
Confirms cognitive interviews developed in 1984 by Geiselman, Fisher and colleagues with four core retrieval techniques. For polygraph examiners looking to enhance their post-test interview techniques, cognitive interviewing principles can significantly improve the quality and completeness of information gathered during examinations.
Emerging Modern Approaches: HIG, SUE & Beyond
The High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
The HIG, established by President Obama via Executive Order 13491 in August 2009 and administratively housed within the FBI's National Security Branch, represents the most significant evidence base ever assembled on interrogation effectiveness [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009. The HIG is a three-agency intelligence-gathering entity bringing together professionals from the FBI, CIA, and Department of Defense [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009. Since beginning operations in January 2010, the HIG research program has supported over a hundred peer-reviewed studies spanning psychology, linguistics, decision-making, and communication science [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009.
The HIG's findings consistently support rapport-based approaches over confrontational methods. Research funded by the program has validated techniques including the Strategic Use of Evidence, cognitive interviewing adaptations for suspect interviews, and rapport-based interpersonal techniques. More than 1,000 field observations of interrogation sessions were analyzed by the HIG in studies conducted at Camp Cropper, Iraq, and a detention facility in Parwan, Afghanistan [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009. The HIG published its best practices report in August 2016 through the FBI, summarizing evidence-based approaches that do not involve the use of force [33]Verified HIG Interrogation Best Practices Report
FBI-administered report summarizing best practices for interrogation not involving the use of force. For a broader understanding of how intelligence agencies have adapted polygraph and interviewing methods since 9/11, see our article on polygraph expansion and federal scrutiny in the 2000s.
The Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) Technique
The Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) technique, developed by researchers Pär Anders Granhag and Maria Hartwig, represents one of the most promising advances in deception detection. SUE is a framework for planning and executing suspect interviews with the aim of facilitating judgments of truth and deception through strategic disclosure of evidence [4]Verified Strategic Use of Evidence During Police Interviews: When Training to Detect Deception Works
Confirms trained SUE interviewers achieved 85.4% deception detection accuracy compared to 56.1% for untrained interviewers.
In a foundational study by Hartwig, Granhag, Strömwall, and Kronkvist (2006), published in Law and Human Behavior, police trainees trained in the SUE technique achieved a deception detection accuracy rate of 85.4%, compared to just 56.1% for untrained interviewers [4]Verified Strategic Use of Evidence During Police Interviews: When Training to Detect Deception Works
Confirms trained SUE interviewers achieved 85.4% deception detection accuracy compared to 56.1% for untrained interviewers. The technique works by strategically withholding evidence until after questioning, then using statement-evidence inconsistency as a diagnostic cue to deception [4]Verified Strategic Use of Evidence During Police Interviews: When Training to Detect Deception Works
Confirms trained SUE interviewers achieved 85.4% deception detection accuracy compared to 56.1% for untrained interviewers.
A study with U.S. law enforcement officers (N=59) by Luke, Hartwig, Joseph, and colleagues (2016) published in the Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology found that SUE-trained interviewers achieved a higher deception detection accuracy rate (65%) compared to untrained interviewers (43%) [34]Verified Training in the Strategic Use of Evidence Technique: Improving Deception Detection Accuracy of American Law Enforcement Officers
Confirms SUE-trained U.S. law enforcement officers achieved 65% accuracy vs. 43% for untrained officers. The SUE technique is not a confrontational interrogation technique; it belongs to the information-gathering family of techniques and draws on the psychology of guilt and innocence [35]Verified Detection of Deception: Use of Evidence — SUE Technique
Confirms SUE is not confrontational and belongs to information-gathering techniques, drawing on psychology of guilt and innocence. Research has shown that guilty suspects avoid talking about incriminating evidence during "free recall" stages, while innocent suspects are more forthcoming with their answers [35]Verified Detection of Deception: Use of Evidence — SUE Technique
Confirms SUE is not confrontational and belongs to information-gathering techniques, drawing on psychology of guilt and innocence.
For law enforcement professionals interested in emerging technologies that complement interview techniques, our guide to EyeDetect in law enforcement explores how ocular-motor deception detection can be integrated into investigative workflows.
The Role of Polygraph Testing in Modern Interviewing
Polygraph as a Complementary Investigative Tool
Polygraph testing has played a foundational role in the development of modern interrogation, and today it serves as a valuable complementary tool alongside investigative interviewing. The APA meta-analytic survey found that validated polygraph techniques achieve approximately 89% accuracy for event-specific diagnostic tests (95% CI: 83–95%) and 85% for multi-issue screening applications (95% CI: 77–93%) [7]Verified Meta-Analytic Survey of Criterion Accuracy of Validated Polygraph Techniques
Reports approximately 89% accuracy for specific-incident criminal investigations and 85% for screening applications[36]Verified 2015 Update to the APA 2011 Meta-Analytic Survey of Validated Polygraph Techniques
Confirmed mean accuracy of.89 for event-specific diagnostic polygraphs and.85 for multi-issue screening. These accuracy rates far exceed the 54% baseline that Bond and DePaulo's meta-analysis established for unaided human deception detection [18]Verified Accuracy of Deception Judgments
Meta-analysis of 206 documents and 24,483 judges finding average 54% accuracy in lie-truth judgments, barely above chance.
John E. Reid himself was a polygraph examiner, and the Reid Technique's origins are deeply intertwined with polygraph pre-test and post-test interview practices [11]Verified Lie Detection: Its History, Methods and Techniques
Early comprehensive account documenting the Reid approach to lie detection and criminal interrogation techniques. The connection between polygraph and interviewing methodology has remained strong. For polygraph examiners, the pre-test interview offers an ideal opportunity to apply cognitive interviewing principles and PEACE-compatible rapport-building techniques, while the post-test interview provides a structured context for gathering additional information. See also our guide to public sector polygraph testing and which agencies use them.
Research published in Beyond the Polygraph: Deception Detection and the Autonomic Nervous System reviewed emerging technologies including fMRI, EEG, thermal imaging, and cognitive-based approaches, assessing each technology's readiness for practical deployment alongside traditional polygraph methods [37]Verified Beyond the Polygraph: Deception Detection and the Autonomic Nervous System
Reviews emerging deception detection methods beyond traditional polygraph including fMRI, EEG, thermal imaging, and cognitive-based approaches. While these technologies show promise, validated polygraph remains the gold standard for psychophysiological deception detection in investigative settings. For professionals considering a career that combines polygraph and interviewing skills, our guide to becoming a CIA polygraph examiner details the training pathway.
False Confessions: Prevention and Reform
Understanding and Preventing False Confessions
False confessions remain a serious concern in the criminal justice system, and understanding their causes is essential for implementing effective reforms. According to the Innocence Project, in more than 25% of wrongful convictions overturned with DNA evidence, defendants made false confessions, admissions, or statements to law enforcement [38]Verified DNA Exonerations in the United States — Innocence Project
Documents that more than 25% of DNA exoneration cases involved false confessions.
Research has demonstrated that juveniles are disproportionately susceptible to false confessions under accusatory interrogation. Drizin and Leo (2004) found that a disproportionately high 33% of proven false confessions came from juveniles, most under age 15 [39]Verified The Problem of False Confessions in the Post-DNA World
Documents that 33% of 125 proven false confessions came from juveniles, most under age 15. Children under 18 are between two and three times more likely to falsely confess than adults. This vulnerability has driven the legislative reform movement, with ten states now banning police deception during juvenile interrogations [6]Verified It's Legal for Police to Use Deception in Interrogations. Advocates Want That to End
Confirms ten states have banned police deception during juvenile interrogations, starting with Illinois in 2021[19]Verified Fact Sheet: Deception Bans in Juvenile Interrogations
Confirms ten state legislatures have banned deception during juvenile interrogations and lists all ten states.
The broader reform movement emphasizes several protective measures: electronic recording of interrogations, limits on interrogation duration, mandatory access to counsel for juveniles, and the adoption of non-confrontational interviewing methods. These reforms complement polygraph testing by ensuring that the broader investigative process maintains integrity. For a real-world exploration of how interrogation methods are portrayed in media, see our analysis of polygraph in The Wire.
The Future of Interrogation
Toward Science-Based, Ethical Interviewing
The future of interrogation is science-based, ethical, and information-gathering-focused. Several converging trends are reshaping the field:
The HIG research program continues to produce peer-reviewed studies that validate rapport-based approaches, providing law enforcement with evidence-based alternatives to confrontational methods [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009. Agencies are increasingly replacing legacy coercive methods with science-based interviewing grounded in ethics, rapport, and validated research [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009.
The global adoption of PEACE-compatible frameworks continues to accelerate, with countries adapting the model to their national contexts [29]Verified CTI — Police Interviewing and International PEACE Adaptations
Confirms Norwegian KREATIV model, Indonesian POAC model, and UN Special Rapporteur call for universal protocol in 2016. The Norwegian KREATIV model and Indonesia's POAC framework demonstrate that ethical interviewing can be adapted to diverse legal and cultural settings.
The integration of cognitive interviewing principles into suspect interviewing — not just witness interviewing — represents a growing area of research and practice [3]Verified Leading Interview and Interrogation Techniques: Focus on Cognitive Interview
Validates cognitive interview as scientifically proven technique for information gathering suitable for legal proceedings. The SUE technique's evidence base continues to expand, with multiple studies confirming that strategic evidence disclosure significantly improves deception detection [4]Verified Strategic Use of Evidence During Police Interviews: When Training to Detect Deception Works
Confirms trained SUE interviewers achieved 85.4% deception detection accuracy compared to 56.1% for untrained interviewers[34]Verified Training in the Strategic Use of Evidence Technique: Improving Deception Detection Accuracy of American Law Enforcement Officers
Confirms SUE-trained U.S. law enforcement officers achieved 65% accuracy vs. 43% for untrained officers.
Polygraph testing continues to evolve alongside these interviewing methods, with updated meta-analyses confirming high accuracy rates and new research exploring how polygraph can be integrated with cognitive load-based approaches [7]Verified Meta-Analytic Survey of Criterion Accuracy of Validated Polygraph Techniques
Reports approximately 89% accuracy for specific-incident criminal investigations and 85% for screening applications[36]Verified 2015 Update to the APA 2011 Meta-Analytic Survey of Validated Polygraph Techniques
Confirmed mean accuracy of.89 for event-specific diagnostic polygraphs and.85 for multi-issue screening[37]Verified Beyond the Polygraph: Deception Detection and the Autonomic Nervous System
Reviews emerging deception detection methods beyond traditional polygraph including fMRI, EEG, thermal imaging, and cognitive-based approaches. For law enforcement agencies navigating these changes, the combination of validated polygraph techniques with science-based interviewing methods offers the most comprehensive approach to investigative truth-finding. Agencies considering policy changes around polygraph requirements should review our analysis of Omaha Police's decision on polygraph requirements for lessons learned.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Reid Technique and how does it work?
The Reid Technique is a three-phase interrogation method developed by John E. Reid in the 1950s and formalized in the 1962 textbook Criminal Interrogation and Confessions [11]Verified Lie Detection: Its History, Methods and Techniques
Early comprehensive account documenting the Reid approach to lie detection and criminal interrogation techniques. It consists of Fact Analysis, the Behavior Analysis Interview (a non-accusatory phase), and the Nine Steps of Interrogation (an accusatory phase designed to move suspects from denial to admission) [16]Verified Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation
Confirms nine steps of interrogation, three-phase structure, and Supreme Court recognition in Missouri v. Seibert (2004). Over 500,000 professionals have been trained in the technique since 1974 [15]Verified Interrogation Techniques — Connecticut General Assembly Report
Confirms over 500,000 professionals trained in Reid since 1974 and details the three-phase structure of the technique.
What is the PEACE model of investigative interviewing?
The PEACE model is a non-accusatory investigative interviewing framework developed in England and Wales in the early 1990s [22]Verified PEACE Model Development and Collaborative Framework
Confirms PEACE was developed in the early 1990s as a collaborative effort between law enforcement and psychologists in England and Wales. PEACE stands for Preparation and Planning, Engage and Explain, Account, Closure, and Evaluate [22]Verified PEACE Model Development and Collaborative Framework
Confirms PEACE was developed in the early 1990s as a collaborative effort between law enforcement and psychologists in England and Wales. It was created in response to high-profile wrongful convictions involving coerced confessions and emphasizes information-gathering over confession-seeking. It has been adopted by law enforcement in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and parts of Canada [28]Verified PEACE Model Global Adoption
Confirms PEACE adopted in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and parts of Canada as of November 2017.
How accurate is the Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) technique?
In a foundational study by Hartwig et al. (2006), police trainees trained in the SUE technique achieved a deception detection accuracy rate of 85.4%, compared to just 56.1% for untrained interviewers [4]Verified Strategic Use of Evidence During Police Interviews: When Training to Detect Deception Works
Confirms trained SUE interviewers achieved 85.4% deception detection accuracy compared to 56.1% for untrained interviewers. A later study with U.S. law enforcement officers found SUE-trained interviewers achieved 65% accuracy versus 43% for untrained interviewers [34]Verified Training in the Strategic Use of Evidence Technique: Improving Deception Detection Accuracy of American Law Enforcement Officers
Confirms SUE-trained U.S. law enforcement officers achieved 65% accuracy vs. 43% for untrained officers. These rates significantly exceed the 54% average for unaided human deception detection identified by Bond and DePaulo [18]Verified Accuracy of Deception Judgments
Meta-analysis of 206 documents and 24,483 judges finding average 54% accuracy in lie-truth judgments, barely above chance.
Why did Wicklander-Zulawski stop teaching the Reid Technique?
In March 2017, Wicklander-Zulawski & Associates announced it would no longer teach the Reid Technique after 33 years of including it in their curriculum [5]Verified Wicklander-Zulawski Discontinues Reid Method Instruction After More Than 30 Years
Confirms WZ stopped teaching the Reid Technique in March 2017, citing false confession risks. WZ President and CEO Shane Sturman stated that confrontation is not an effective way of getting truthful information and cited the risk of false confessions [5]Verified Wicklander-Zulawski Discontinues Reid Method Instruction After More Than 30 Years
Confirms WZ stopped teaching the Reid Technique in March 2017, citing false confession risks. The company shifted to teaching non-confrontational methods including the Participatory Method and Cognitive Interviewing [5]Verified Wicklander-Zulawski Discontinues Reid Method Instruction After More Than 30 Years
Confirms WZ stopped teaching the Reid Technique in March 2017, citing false confession risks.
What is cognitive interviewing and how effective is it?
Cognitive interviewing is a memory-retrieval technique developed by Geiselman and Fisher in 1984 to enhance eyewitness recall [30]Verified Cognitive Interview — Development and Validation
Confirms cognitive interviews developed in 1984 by Geiselman, Fisher and colleagues with four core retrieval techniques. It uses four core techniques: Mental Reinstatement of Context, Report Everything, Change Temporal Order, and Change Perspective [30]Verified Cognitive Interview — Development and Validation
Confirms cognitive interviews developed in 1984 by Geiselman, Fisher and colleagues with four core retrieval techniques. A meta-analysis by Memon, Meissner, and Fraser (2010) examining 46 studies confirmed a large and significant increase in correct details with only a small increase in errors compared to standard interviews [32]Verified The Cognitive Interview: A Meta-Analytic Review and Study Space Analysis of the Past 25 Years
Meta-analysis of 46 published articles confirming significant increase in correct details from cognitive interview with small increase in errors.
How does polygraph testing integrate with modern interviewing?
Polygraph testing serves as a powerful complementary tool alongside modern interviewing techniques. With validated accuracy rates of approximately 89% for event-specific tests [7]Verified Meta-Analytic Survey of Criterion Accuracy of Validated Polygraph Techniques
Reports approximately 89% accuracy for specific-incident criminal investigations and 85% for screening applications, polygraph far exceeds the 54% baseline for unaided human deception detection [18]Verified Accuracy of Deception Judgments
Meta-analysis of 206 documents and 24,483 judges finding average 54% accuracy in lie-truth judgments, barely above chance. The pre-test interview provides an ideal opportunity to apply cognitive interviewing principles and PEACE-compatible rapport-building techniques, while the post-test interview offers a structured context for gathering additional information.
What is the High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)?
The HIG is a U.S. interagency entity established by President Obama in August 2009, bringing together professionals from the FBI, CIA, and Department of Defense [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009. It serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, lawful, science-informed interviewing techniques [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009. Since 2010, the HIG has supported over a hundred peer-reviewed studies and its findings consistently support rapport-based approaches over confrontational methods [14]Verified High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009.
How many states have banned police deception during juvenile interrogations?
As of 2024, ten states have passed laws banning police deception during juvenile interrogations: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Virginia [19]Verified Fact Sheet: Deception Bans in Juvenile Interrogations
Confirms ten state legislatures have banned deception during juvenile interrogations and lists all ten states. Illinois and Oregon were the first in 2021 [6]Verified It's Legal for Police to Use Deception in Interrogations. Advocates Want That to End
Confirms ten states have banned police deception during juvenile interrogations, starting with Illinois in 2021. In August 2024, the American Bar Association enacted Resolution 517 urging all remaining state legislatures to follow suit [19]Verified Fact Sheet: Deception Bans in Juvenile Interrogations
Confirms ten state legislatures have banned deception during juvenile interrogations and lists all ten states. Some advocates are now pushing for bans that extend to adult interrogations as well [6]Verified It's Legal for Police to Use Deception in Interrogations. Advocates Want That to End
Confirms ten states have banned police deception during juvenile interrogations, starting with Illinois in 2021.
Sources & References
Documents how early deception detection methods established foundations for modern techniques, with contemporary approaches like SUE showing superior results
Confirms cognitive interview is scientifically validated as one of the best tools to obtain information suitable for legal proceedings from victims, witnesses, or suspects
Validates cognitive interview as scientifically proven technique for information gathering suitable for legal proceedings
Confirms trained SUE interviewers achieved 85.4% deception detection accuracy compared to 56.1% for untrained interviewers
Confirms WZ stopped teaching the Reid Technique in March 2017, citing false confession risks
Confirms ten states have banned police deception during juvenile interrogations, starting with Illinois in 2021
Reports approximately 89% accuracy for specific-incident criminal investigations and 85% for screening applications
Documents the 1931 report on widespread police brutality and third degree tactics during interrogations across the United States
Confirms Brown v. Mississippi established that confessions obtained through physical torture violated the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
Confirms Miranda v. Arizona referenced the Reid Technique and that the technique was noted in the landmark decision
Early comprehensive account documenting the Reid approach to lie detection and criminal interrogation techniques
Confirms the Reid Technique was developed in the 1950s by John E. Reid, a polygraph expert and former Chicago police officer
Confirms conviction dates (Guildford Four: 22 October 1975), exoneration (19 October 1989), and Maguire Seven details
Confirms the HIG serves as the U.S. government's primary entity for developing ethical, science-informed interviewing techniques, established in 2009
Confirms over 500,000 professionals trained in Reid since 1974 and details the three-phase structure of the technique
Confirms nine steps of interrogation, three-phase structure, and Supreme Court recognition in Missouri v. Seibert (2004)
Confirms Reid & Associates founded in 1947 and Inbau's role at the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory
Meta-analysis of 206 documents and 24,483 judges finding average 54% accuracy in lie-truth judgments, barely above chance
Confirms ten state legislatures have banned deception during juvenile interrogations and lists all ten states
Confirms Birmingham Six convictions quashed on 14 March 1991
Confirms the turning point for UK investigative interviewing came with PACE in 1984
Confirms PEACE was developed in the early 1990s as a collaborative effort between law enforcement and psychologists in England and Wales
Confirms PEACE Training Model was introduced in 1993 for police use in England and Wales, and Ray Bull's role
Confirms PEACE adoption in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and Canada (RCMP adoption in 2015)
Confirms PEACE model intentionally replaces 'interrogation' with 'investigative interview' and details the humane ethical framework
Confirms PEACE interviewing associated with more comprehensive accounts and better interview outcomes
National evaluation of PEACE training across English and Welsh police forces, Home Office report PRAS No. 149
Confirms PEACE adopted in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and parts of Canada as of November 2017
Confirms Norwegian KREATIV model, Indonesian POAC model, and UN Special Rapporteur call for universal protocol in 2016
Confirms cognitive interviews developed in 1984 by Geiselman, Fisher and colleagues with four core retrieval techniques
Confirms Fisher and Geiselman published Enhanced Cognitive Interview training manual in 1992 with 45% improvement in recall
Meta-analysis of 46 published articles confirming significant increase in correct details from cognitive interview with small increase in errors
FBI-administered report summarizing best practices for interrogation not involving the use of force
Confirms SUE-trained U.S. law enforcement officers achieved 65% accuracy vs. 43% for untrained officers
Confirms SUE is not confrontational and belongs to information-gathering techniques, drawing on psychology of guilt and innocence
Confirmed mean accuracy of.89 for event-specific diagnostic polygraphs and.85 for multi-issue screening
Reviews emerging deception detection methods beyond traditional polygraph including fMRI, EEG, thermal imaging, and cognitive-based approaches
Documents that more than 25% of DNA exoneration cases involved false confessions
Documents that 33% of 125 proven false confessions came from juveniles, most under age 15
Foundational research covering the complete spectrum of polygraph admissibility arguments under Daubert standards
Reported polygraph accuracy exceeding.90 using the CQT format, establishing early scientific foundation
Modern interviewing pairs naturally with polygraph testing, so if you need the truth verified, find a lie detector test near you and see pricing.